The Effect of Hidden Picture Game in Increasing The Students’ Vocabulary (INTRODUCTION)

The Effect of Hidden Picture Game in Increasing The Students’ Vocabulary (INTRODUCTION)
 
Written by Ari Julianto


A. The Background of the Study
English is a foreign language in Indonesia and it is very difficult to know English language for Indonesians especially those who live in the village. Many Indonesians still use regional languages.  Our duty, as teachers, now is how to teach English to the students in the school especially those who live in there. It will be very interesting to the teachers to look for several ways in teaching English to the students. The simple way to know English vocabulary is by using technology.

Vocabulary is the most useful components to learn English. Without it, we cannot speak, read and write in English. From a word we can make sentences to combine a song, poem etc. Based on the researcher’s experience in PPL (Teaching Practice), many students especially in junior high school are lack of vocabulary. They read the text but they missed conception in ideas and they did not know the meaning. They answered the questions but they had mistake in answers. They had difficulty in making conversation because they were lack of vocabulary. For example: What is there on the table? – That is a small plate (should be a saucer).

Tiner (1997: 50) states that the normal child’s experience with reading will result in lacquering a constantly enlarging stock of sigh words, he will have established automatic stimulus response patterns for dozens of frequently used words such as that, with, be, are, and, was, it, the, in, to, that, you, they, said, whom, can, and. A teacher must be sensitive to environment, start from human resources such as teachers, administrators, parents, material resources such as books, media, games, filmstrips, school facilities or services resources such as buildings, laboratory, library.  A teacher must have variation methods in supporting the students. Without motivation, it will make the students get bored in learning, and finally it would be influencing the students’ ability. Finochiaro (1996: 26) states that important factors related to the second/foreign language learning are curriculum, students, teachers, media, materials and methods.

Moreover, Finochiaro (1996: 30) states that learning English vocabulary through games is very interesting to the students. They are very conscious to look for the appropriate words to fill the answer. They practice their competence indirectly when they do the exercises. The competence, in the other hand, is holding an important thing in learning language. To communicate fluently, a student must have some words and it is very impossible to do the conversation if they do not know the vocabularies.

A child acquires knowledge of sentences not only as grammatical, but also as appropriate to the context in which they are made. Hymes (1982: 277) states, “A child knows when and when not to speak, what to talk about with whom, when, where, and in what manner.”

Teachers across the United States have learned it is beneficial to use games when teaching ESL (English as a second language). They find when students are relaxed, they are more likely to retain information and understand their material more quickly. Games in the classroom force interaction and communication among the students. The teacher makes sure everyone has a turn to participate in the game and assists with communication wherever necessary. Students playing games to learn English strive to win the game. Through their language usage, the students learn to master the language, thus instilling a sense of accomplishment when their hard work helps them win.

Based on the explanation above, the researcher would like to offer an audiovisual media, Hidden Pictures Games as a media to build up the students’ ability in vocabulary. In circumstance where  the students used regional language, limited facilities, limited resources, the researcher will giving the spirits to the teachers and the students. That was some reason why the researcher would be analyzing the students’ vocabulary by using a Hidden Pictures Games as a students’ achievement. And finally, the researcher hopes, the research would be giving the positive influenced and there was no reason to stop the study.

Yong Mei and Yu-jing (2000: 30) said that games used to learn English are relatively simple to create. A teacher can use the games to control the overall classroom atmosphere and maintain a structure to the English lessons. A game helps a teacher easily assess where each student stands, and the teacher can take notes on the students' levels while the students are having fun.

Based on the explanation above, we can conclude that the students’ problems in vocabulary can be in the lack of vocabulary, identifying the things, understanding the English word and recognizing the new thing in their vocabulary list.

One of the advantages of games to learn English is a game motivates students to progress in the use of the language and develop a real understanding of English. This is particularly true of games that challenge students in a manner that pushes their language skills without making them feel defeated. A game helps teachers create particular context where language is most meaningful and useful.

B.  The Identification of the Problem
The problems of this study are identified as follows:
1. the effect of using Hidden Pictures Game in increasing the students’ vocabulary,
2. the percentage of effect by using Hidden Pictures Game in increasing the students’ vocabulary .

C.  The Scope and Limitation
This study discusses about the effect of using Hidden Pictures Game to the students’ vocabulary. The Hidden Pictures Game is used for this research from http://www.highlightskids.com that can be accessed directly via internet and the book Highlight Kids in which the copies of the contents can be given to the students. The limitation is the students’ achievement in learning vocabulary taught by Hidden Pictures Game. the location and the sample are in the first class students of .......... in Jalan..........of 2010/2011 academic year.

D. The Formulation of the Problem
The formulation of the problem would be formulating as follows:
1.  is there any effect in using Hidden Pictures Game in increasing the students’ vocabulary?
2.  how many percentage the effect of using Hidden Pictures Game in increasing the students’ vocabulary?

E. The Objectives of the Study
The objectives of this study are focused on:
1. to find out the effect of Hidden Pictures Game to the students’ achievement in vocabulary, and
2.  to find out the percentage the effect of using Hidden Pictures Game in increasing the students’ vocabulary.

F.  The Significances of the Study
The researcher expects to give the valuable contribution for those involve with this subject of the study. The significances of the study are as follows:
1. The result of this analysis will be some valuable information for the teachers,
2. The teachers who teach the students, because the finding of this study will enrich the teacher’s method in teaching-learning process especially in vocabulary,
3. A game helps teachers create particular context where language is most meaningful and useful. This makes the students want to communicate with others so they can get their points across during the game,
4. Also, the teachers can run through more material in the same amount of time than through straight lecturing,
5. Games offer a student a sense of accomplishment. Other students will work harder to win and in the end will be learning English through the game,
6. Hopefully, it will be useful for the students so that they can build up their vocabulary.

References
Tiner, Pieter A. 1997. Learning through Comics. London: Oxford University PressTown.
Finocciaro, M. 1996. Visual Aids in Teaching English as a Second Language. New York: Hunter College.
Hymes,1982. Building English Skills.  Washington: MacDougal.
Yin Yong Mei and Jang Yu-jing. 2000. Using Games in an EFL Class for Children. Beijing: Daejin University ELT Research Paper.

Methods and Methodology

                    Methods and Methodology

Written by
Mairead Dunne, John Pryor and Paul Yates in Becoming a researcher, A companion to the research process. New York: McGraw-Hill. 2005. pp 162-166.

Victor Jupp in The Sage Dictionary of Social Research Methods. London: SAGE Publications Ltd.2006.pp 175.

C.R Kothari in Research Methodology, Methods & Techniques. Mumbai: New Age International Publishers.2004.pp 7-8.


The word methodology is problematic. It is frequently used in everyday life and sometimes even in academic circles interchangeably with methods. This elision is understandable and is compounded by the linguistic forms. If we want to use an adjective meaning appertaining to methods, we have to use ‘methodological’ since methodical means something rather different. Thus, the two nouns share adjectival forms. However,for a researcher distinguishing between them is more than an exercise in pedantry.

The definition of methods is relatively straightforward. It is derived from the Greek meta meaning after, beyond usually used in English words to mean beyond in the sense of more developed or higher order and hodos meaning way or means. Methods then are the systematic means by which something is accomplished. In research, therefore, methods denote the ways in which data are produced, interpreted and reported.

They consist of procedures and techniques exemplified by particular research instruments so questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, participant observation and role playing are all examples of research methods and although in themselves different methods may be difficult to operationalize and may be highly problematic in different situations, what is meant by ‘a method’ is actually quite straightforward.

Methodology, however, has an extended and more problematic meaning and is quite complex as an idea. The Greek logos, the final element,means word or reason and is used in a number of ways in English but as the suffix -logy generally denotes study or theory. Thus, methodology in essence can be seen as the study of, or a theory of, the way that methods are used.
(Mairead Dunne, John Pryor and Paul Yates)

Methodology is the philosophical stance or worldview that underlies and informs a style of research.

Distinctive Features Methodology is the philosophy of  methods. It encompasses, first, an epistemology the‘rules of truth’ for warranting the validity of conclusions and secondly, an ontology establishing the objects’ about which questions may validly be asked and conclusions may be drawn.

In virtually all research (but see below) the epistemology is ‘rules of science’ conclusions based on arguments cast in terms of information that has been collected ‘transparently’ by known, and in principle, testable and reproducible means. The ontologies of research, however, reflect the wordview or ‘map’ with which the researcher engages.

One position, commonly labelled ‘positivistic’, takes for granted the nature of the real world and reserves all its doubts for the nature of the evidence about it; problems within positivism are problems of measurement how to measure the real world most accurately rather than about its ontology.
(Victor Jupp )

It seems appropriate at this juncture to explain the difference between research methods and research methodology. Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used for conduction of research. Research methods or techniques, thus, refer to the methods the researchers use in performing research operations. In other words, all those methods which are used by the researcher during the course of studying his research problem are termed as research methods.

Since the object of research, particularly the applied research, it to arrive at a solution for a given problem, the available data and the unknown aspects of the problem have to be related to each other to make a solution possible. Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into the following three groups:

1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection of data. These methods will be used where the data already available are not sufficient to arrive at the required solution;
2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns;
3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results obtained.

Research methods falling in the above stated last two groups are generally taken as the analytical tools of research.

Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the research methods/techniques but also the methodology. Researchers not only need to know how to develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they also need to know which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and what would they mean and indicate and why.

Researchers also need to understand the assumptions underlying various techniques and they need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not. All this means that it is necessary for the researcher to design his methodology for his problem as the same may differ from problem to problem. 

From what has been stated above, we can say that research methodology has many dimensions and research methods do constitute a part of the research methodology. The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research methods. Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular method or technique and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others.

Why a research study has been undertaken, how the research problem has been defined, in what way and why the hypothesis has been formulated, what data have been collected and what particular method has been adopted, why particular technique of analysing data has been used and a host of similar other questions are usually answered when we talk of research methodology concerning a research problem or study.
(CR Kothari)

Pengertian Hipotesis

Pengertian Hipotesis
   
      Written by Ari Julianto


I. Definisi
Hipotesis dapat didefinisikan dari berbagai sudut pandang, antara lain:

a. Secara etimologis
- Menurut Djarwanto (1994 : 13), kata Hipotesis berasal dari dua kata hypo yang berarti “kurang dari” dan thesis yang berarti pendapat. Jadi hipotesis merupakan suatu pendapat atau kesimpulan yang belum final, yang harus diuji kebenarannya.
- Menurut Ary (2000: 120), hipotesis merupakan suatu pernyataan sementara yang diajukan untuk memecahkan suatu masalah, atau untuk menerangkan suatu gejala,
- Menurut Nazir (1998: 182), hipotesis adalah jawaban sementara terhadap masalah penelitian yang kebenarannya harus diuji secara empiris.

b. Secara teknis
-  Menurut Suryabrata (1991: 49), hipotesis merupakan pernyataan mengenai keadaan populasi yang akan diuji kebenarannya berdasarkan data yang diperoleh dari sampel penelitian

c. Secara statistik
- Menurut Suryabrata (2000 : 69), hipotesis merupakan pernyataan mengenai keadaan parameter yang akan diuji melalui statistik sample.

d. Hubungannya dengan variabel
Hipotesis merupakan pernyataan tentang keterkaitan antara variabel-variabel (hubugan atau perbedaan antara dua variabel atau lebih).
e. Hubungannya dengan teori ilmiah Hipotesis merupakan deduksi dari teori ilmiah (pada penelitian kuantitatif) dan kesimpulan sementara sebagai hasil observasi untuk menghasilkan teori baru (pada penelitian kualitatif).

f. Secara proposi
Kothari (2004: 184)
Hipotesis dapat didefinisikan sebagai proposisi atau seperangkat proposisi yang ditetapkan sebagai penjelasan untuk terjadinya fenomena terhadap sejumlah kelompok tertentu baik hanya menegaskan sebagai dugaan sementara untuk membimbing penyelidikan maupun diterima sebagai fakta jelas yang mapan.

II. Ciri-ciri Rumusan Hipotesis
Ada beberapa hal yang harus diperhatikan peneliti dalam merumuskan hipotesis menurut Suryabrata (2000: 70), yaitu :
a. Hipotesis harus menyatakan pertautan antara dua variabel atau lebih (dalam satu rumusan hipotesis minimal terdapat dua variabel).
b. Hipotesis hendaknya dinyatakan secara deklaratif (kalimat pernyataan).
c. Hipotesis hendaknya dirumuskan dengan jelas.
d. Hipotesis harus dapat diuji kebenarannya.

Sedangkan menurut Kothari (2004: 184), hipotesis haruslah memiliki ciri-ciri antara lain:
a. Hipotesis harus jelas dan tepat
b. Hipotesis harus dapat diuji
c. Hipotesis harus menyatakan hubungan antara variabel, jika itu terjadi menjadi hipotesis relasional .
d. Hipotesis harus dibatasi dalam lingkup dan spesifik,
e. Hipotesis sebisa mungkin harus dinyatakan dalam istilah yang paling sederhana sehingga mudah dimengerti oleh semua pihak
f. Hipotesis harus konsisten terhadap sebagian besar fakta yang ada
g. Hipotesis harus siap untuk diuji
h. Hipotesis harus menjelaskan fakta-fakta yang memunculkan kebutuhan untuk adanya penjelasan.

III. Jenis-jenis Hipotesis
Menurut Danim dan Darwis (2003: 171) ada beberapa jenis hipotesis yang dapat diklasifikasikan berdasarkan rumusannya dan proses pemerolehannya.
a. Ditinjau dari rumusannya

1) Hipoteis kerja (Hipotesis Alternatif)
Hipotesis “yang sebenarnya” yang merupakan sintesis dari hasil kajian teoritis. Hipotesis kerja biasanya disingkat H1 atau Ha.

2) Hipotesis statistik (Hipotesis Nol/Nihil)
merupakan lawan dari hipotesis kerjadan sering disingkat Ho. Ada kalanya peneliti merumuskan hipotesis dalam bentuk H1 dan Ho untuk satu permasalahan penelitian. Hal ini didasari atas pertimbangan bahwa Ho "sengaja” dipersiapkan untuk ditolak, sedangkan H1 “dipersiapkan” untuk diterima.

b. Ditinjau dari proses pemerolehannya, hipotesis dibedakan menjadi:
1) Hipotesis induktif
yaitu hipotesis yang dirumuskan berdasarkan pengamatan untuk menghasikan teori baru (pada penelitian kualitatif)

2) Hipotesis deduktif
merupakan hipotesis yang dirumuskan berdasarkan teori ilmiah yang telah ada (pada penelitian kuantitatif).

Sementara Arikunto (2010: 112) berpendapat bahwa ada dua jenis hipotesis yang digunakan dalam penelitian, yaitu :
a. Hipotesis Kerja. Biasa disebut hipotesis alternative, yang menyakatan adanya hubungan antara variable X dan Y. atau adanya perbedaan antara dua kelompok. Dengan rumusan
:       Jika …. Maka ….
        Ada perbedaan antara …. Dan ….
        Ada pengaruh …. Terhadap ….

b. Hipotesis Nol(Ho). Sering disebut hipotesis statistic karena selalu berhubungan dengan penelitian statistik dengan pengujian menggunakan angka/statistic. Dan dikatakan Statistic Nol sebab tidak adanya perbedaan antara dua variabel. Dan tidak memberikan pengaruh.
Dengan rumusan :
            Tidak ada perbedaan antara …. Dengan ….
            Tidak ada pengaruh …. Terhadap ….

Sedangkan menurut Mashuri (2009:137), hipotesis dapat dikelompokkan menjadi empat kelompok, yaitu :
1. Hipotesis umum (HU)
Hipotesis umum masih memerlukan penjabaran lebih luas, penjabaran tersebut adalah hipotesis nol, hipotesis kerja, dan hipotesis alternative.
Contoh :
Hipotesis Umum : “ Diduga semakin modern masyarakat, semakin tinggi tingkat partisipasinya terhadap program pembangunan desa ”

Dalam hipotesis tersebut partisipasi dipengaruhi oleh tingkat modernnya masyarakat. Untuk mengukur
varibel-variabel yang ada dalam kata “ modernnya ” pada hipotesis umum tersebut, dapat diukur melalui:
    Cara berpakaian (pakai dasi / full dress)
    Perabot rumah tangga (serba elektronik)
    Cara berbicara(bahasa yang dipakai)
    Komunikasi (pakai telepon genggam)
    Jumlah bacaan setiap harinya(kompas), dll

Dari data tersebut dapatlah dijadikan sebagai bahan penyusunan hipotesis, baik hipotesis nol (Ho), hipotesis alternative (Ha), hipotesis kerja (Hk).

2. Hipotesis nol (Ho)
Hipotesis ini menyatakan tidak ada perbedaan antara dua variabel, atau tidak adanya pengaruh variabel X terhadap variabel Y
Rumusannya:
a) Tidak ada perbedaan antara partisipasi masyarakat Dengan modernya masyarakat Dalam cara berberpakaian.
b)Tidak ada pengaruh modernya masyarakat terhadap partisipasi masyarakat

3.Hipotesis alternative (Ha) 
Hipotesis alternatif ada dua macam menurut Fraenkel and Wallen (1990: 42) dan Arikunto yaitu
a. Directional Hypotheses (Hipotesis Terarah)
Hipotesis terarah adalah hipotesis yang diajukan oleh peneliti, dimana peneliti sudah merumuskan dengan tegas yang menyatakan bahwa variabel independen memang sudah diprediksi berpengaruh terhadap variabel dependen.
Misalnya: Siswa yang diajar dengan metode inkuiri lebih tinggi prestasi belajarnya, dibandingkan dengan siswa yang diajar dengan menggunakan metode curah pendapat.
Hipotesis tak terarah adalah hipotesis yang diajukan dan dirumuskan oleh peneliti tampak belum tegas bahwa variabel independen berpengaruh terhadap variabel dependen.

b. Hipotesis Tak Terarah
Hipotesis tak terarah menggambarkan bahwa peneliti tidak menyusun prediksi secara spesifik tentang arah hasil penelitian yang akan dilakukan.
Contoh: Ada perbedaan pengaruh penggunaan metode mengajar inkuiri dan curah pendapat terhadap prestasi belajar siswa.

4. Hipotesis kerja (Hk),
Hipotesis kerja menyatakan adanya hubungan antara variabel X dan Y, atau adanya perbedaan antara dua kelompok.
Rumusan hipotesis kerja :
    Jika masyarakatnya modern Maka partisipasinya pun meningkat
    Ada perbedaan antara masyarakat moder Dan masyarakat belum modern Dalam partisipasinya
    Ada pengaruh modernnya masyarakat Terhadap pasrtisipasinya.

IV. Prosedur Testing Hipotesis
Menurut Kothari (185)
a. Membuat pernyataan resmi
b. Memilih tingkat signifikansi
c. Menentukan distribusi untuk digunakan
d. Memilih sampel acak dan menghitung value yang tepat
e. Perhitungan probabilitas
f. Membandingkan probabilitas

Menurut Ary (2000: 92)
a. Menyatakan dalam hal operasional hubungan yang harus diamati apakah hipotesis penelitian adalah benar
b. Menyebutkan hipotesis nol
c. Memilih metode penelitian yang akan memungkinkan
hipotesis bisa diamati jika itu ada
d. Mengumpulkan data empiris dan memilih serta menghitung sesuai deskriptif statistik data
e. Menghitung inferensial statistik untuk menentukan probabilitas 
f. Jika probabilitas dari findings yang diamati kesempatannya sangat kecil (misalnya hanya 1 dari 100
peluang), harus cukup bukti untuk menolak hipotesis nol .

V. Fungsi atau kegunaan Hipotesis
Ada beberapa fungsi di dalam suatu penelitian menurut Ary yaitu :
1. Memberikan penjelasan tentang gejala-gejala serta memudahkan perluasan pengetahuan dalam suatu bidang.
2. Mengemukakan pernyataan tentang hubungan dua konsep yang secara langsung dapat diuji dalam penelitian
3. Memberi arah pada penelitian
4. Memberi kerangka pada penyusunan kesimpulan penelitian.

Rumusan hipotesis sebenarnya sudah dapat dibaca dari uraian masalah, tujuan penelitian, kajian teoritik, dan kerangkan pikir sehingga rumusannya harus sejalan. Rumusan masalah dinyatakan sebagai kalimat peryataan (deklaratif). Melibatkan minimalnya dua variabel penelitian. Mengandung satu prediksi. Harus dapat diuji(testable).

Hipotesis dirumuskan dalam bentuk kalimat berita, jelas dan tidak bias atau bermakna ganda. Suatu hipotesis, karenanya tidak dirumuskan dengan menggunakan kalimat Tanya, menggunakan kata-kata yang tidak konsisten atau kabur. Hipotesis yang dirumuskan harus mencerminkan kayakinan peneliti, bahwa apa yang dirumuskan itu mendekati kesimpulan yang didukung oleh bukti empiris.

Demikianlah pembahasan kita kali ini. Semoga bermanfaat. Amien.


Referensi
Arikunto, Suharsimi. 2010. Prosedur Penelitian Suatu Pendekatan Praktik. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta

Ary, Jacobs, dan Razavieh. 2000. Pengantar Penelitian dalam Pendidikan. (Alih Bahasa : Arief Furchan). Surabaya : Usaha Nasional.

Danim, Sudarwan dan Darwis. 2003. Metode Penelitian Kebidanan: Prosedur, Kebijakan, dan Etik. Jakarta: Penerbit Buku Kedokteran EGC.

Djarwanto. 1994. Pokok-pokok Metode Riset dan Bimbingan Teknis Penulisan Skripsi. Yogyakarta: Liberty.

Fraenkel, Jack R. and Norman E. Wallen. 1990. How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Kothari, C.R. 2004. Research Methodology, Methods & Techniques. Mumbai: New Age International Publishers.

Mashuri, Zainudin. 2009. Metode Penelitian Pendekatan Praktis dan Aplikatif. Bandung: Refrika Aditamam.

Nazir, Mohammad. 1998. Metode Penelitian. Jakarta: Ghalia Indonesia.

Suryabrata, Sumadi. 2000. Metodologi Penelitian. Jakarta: PT Raja Grafindo Persada.

Content Analysis

                  Content Analysis
 

Written by
- Kimberly A. Neuendorf in The Content Analysis Guidebook. California: Sage Publications. 2002.
- www.newsimproved.org
- writing.colostate.edu

I. Definition
Content analysis may be briefly defined as the systematic, objective, quantitative analysis of message characteristics. It includes the careful examination of human interactions; the analysis of character portrayals'in TV commercials, films, and novels; the computer-driven investigation of word usage in news releases and political speeches; and so much more.

Content analysis is applicable to many areas of inquiry, with examples ranging from the analysis of naturally occurring language (Markel, 1998) to the study of newspaper coverage of the Greenhouse Effect (Miller, Boone, & Fowler, 1992) and from a description of how the two genders are shown on TV (Greenberg, 1980) to an investigation of the approach strategies used in personal ads (Kolt, 1996). Perhaps, one of the more surprising applications is Johnson's (1987) analysis of Porky Pig's vocalics from a clinical speech therapy standpoint. He examined 37 cartoons, finding that the per-cartoon stuttering ranged from 11.6% to 5 1.4% of words uttered, and certain behaviors were associated with the stuttering (Kimberly A. Neuendorf)

Content analysis is a research tool used to determine the presence of certain words or concepts within texts or sets of texts. Researchers quantify and analyze the presence, meanings and relationships of such words and concepts, then make inferences about the messages within the texts, the writer(s), the audience, and even the culture and time of which these are a part.

Texts can be defined broadly as books, book chapters, essays, interviews, discussions, newspaper headlines and articles, historical documents, speeches, conversations, advertising, theater, informal conversation, or really any occurrence of communicative language. Texts in a single study may also represent a variety of different types of occurrences, such as Palmquist's 1990 study of two composition classes, in which he analyzed student and teacher interviews, writing journals, classroom discussions and lectures, and out-of-class interaction sheets. To conduct a content analysis on any such text, the text is coded, or broken down, into manageable categories on a variety of levels--word, word sense, phrase, sentence, or theme--and then examined using one of content analysis' basic methods: conceptual analysis or relational analysis. (writing.colostate.edu)

II. Reliability
Reliability has been defined as the extent to which a measuring procedure yields the same results on repeated trials (Carmines & Zeller, 1979). When human coders are used in content analysis, this translates to intercoder reliability, or level of agreement among two or more coders. In content analysis, reliability is paramount. Without acceptable levels of reliability, content analysis measures are meaningless. Chapter 7 addresses this important issue in detail. (Kimberly A. Neuendorf)

III. Validity
Validity refers to the extent to which an empirical measure adequately reflects what humans agree on as the real meaning of a concept (Babbie, 1995, p. 127). Generally, it is addressed with the question, "Are we really measuring what we want to measure?" Although,in content analysis, the researcher is the boss, making final decisions on what concepts to measure and how to measure them, there are a number of good guidelines available for improving validity (Carmines & Zeller, 1979). Chapter 6 gives a more detailed discussion. (Kimberly A. Neuendorf)

IV. Generalizability
The generalizability of findings is the extent to which they may be applied to other cases, usually to a larger set that is the defined population from which a study's sample has been drawn. After completing a poll of 300 city residents, the researchers obviously hope to generalize their findings to all residents of the city. Likewise, in a study of 800 personal ads in newspapers, Kolt (1996) generalized his findings to all personal ads in U.S. newspapers in general. He was in a good position to do so because he
(a) randomly selected U.S. daily newspapers,
(b) randomly selected dates for specific issues to analyze, and then
(c) systematically random sampled personal ads in each issue. (Kimberly A. Neuendorf)

V. Replicability
The replication of a study is a safeguard against overgeneralizing the findings of one particular research endeavor. Replication involves repeating a study with different cases or in a different context, checking to see if similar results are obtained each time (Babbie, 1995, p. 21). Whenever possible, research reports should provide enough information about the methods and protocols so that others are free to conduct replications. (Kimberly A. Neuendorf)

VI. Hypothesis Testing
The scientific method is generally considered to be hypothetico-deductive. That is, from theory, one or more hypotheses (conjectural statements or predictions about the relationship among variables) are derived. Each hypothesis is tested deductively: Measurements are made for each of the variables, and relationships among them are examined statistically to see if the predicted relationship holds true. If so, the hypothesis is supported and lends further support to the theory from which it was derived. If not, the hypothesis fails to receive support, and the theory is called into question to some extent. If existing theory is not strong enough to warrant a prediction, a sort of fallback position is to offer one or more research questions.A research question poses a query about possible relationships among variables. In the deductive scientific model, hypotheses and research questions are both posed before data are collected. (Kimberly A. Neuendorf)

VII. Approaches to Content Analysis
The classic Shannon-Weaver (Shannon & Weaver, 1998) model provides the raw framework of source, message, channel, and receiver. Based on this, Berelson (1952) proposed five purposes for content analysis:
(a) to describe substance characteristics of message content (essentially what are described in Chapter 1 as content characteristics),
(b) to.describe form characteristics of message content,
(c) to make inferences to producers of content,
(d) to make inferences to audiences of content, and
(e) to determine the effects of content on the audi-
ence. (Kimberly A. Neuendorf)

VIII. Units
In content analysis, a unit is an identifiable message or message component,
(a) which serves as the basis for identifying the population and drawing a sample,
(b) on which variables are measured, or
(c) which serves as the basis for reporting analyses.
Units can be words, characters, themes, time periods, interactions, or any other result of "breaking up a `communication' into bits". (Kimberly A. Neuendorf)

IX. Content Analysis, Step by Step
1. Define the content you’re going to analyze. Base this definition on your news organization’s editorial goals.
2. Define the audience. Use demographic and other readership data for print. Add reader behavior to these for online.
3. Choose a time frame. What period are you going to measure?
4. Decide what to count. Use specific items, such as story forms, photographs or downloads, that be easily identified.
5. Count. Do the math.
6. Analyze. Apply the numbers to goals and determine success or failure.
7. Repeat regularly. Establish means for ongoing content analysis
(www.newsimproved.org)

X. Steps for Conducting Conceptual Analysis
1. Decide the level of analysis.
2. Decide how many concepts to code for.
3. Decide whether to code for existence or frequency of a concept.
4. Decide on how you will distinguish among concepts.
5. Develop rules for coding your texts.
6. Decide what to do with "irrelevant" information.
7. Code the texts.
8. Analyze your results.
(writing.colostate.edu)

Model Penilaian Menulis (Writing Assessment Models)

Model Penilaian Menulis (Writing Assessment Models)

                                                 Written by Ari Julianto


Mengenai hakikat menulis, Hyland (2003) mengatakan bahwa menulis adalah cara menyampaikan, mengungkapkan perasaan dan berbagi pengalaman penulis kepada pembaca dengan menggunakan bahasa tulis.  Sejalan dengan itu, Reid (1987) mengatakan menulis adalah suatu proses untuk mengungkapkan ide, pikiran dan perasaan atau pengalaman penulis dengan menggunakan sistem yang konvensional sehingga pembaca memahami pesan yang dikirim. Sedangkan penilaian (assessment) merujuk pada berbagai cara yang digunakan untuk mengumpulkan informasi tentang kemampuan dan hasil belajar yang telah dicapai.

Dalam kaitannya dengan metode penilaian, Brown (2007) menguraikan ada tiga cara utama  dalam penilaian menulis yaitu
1. secara holistic (holistic scoring),
2. analytic scoring method, dan
3. triat based scoring method
Namun dia mengajukan pada hakikatnya ada dua metode utama dalam penilaian sebuah tulisan yang biasa digunakan oleh penilai yaitu metode analytic dan holistic.

Glass (2005) menguraikan ada lima komponen yang harus dinilai dalam sebuah tulisan. Kelima komponen tersebut adalah
1. idea atau contents,
2. organization,
3. word choice,
4. sentence fluency, dan
5. conventions. 
Selain itu, setiap bobot memiliki gradasi dan kualitas penilaian atau kategori seperti misalnya excellent to very good, good to average, fair to poor, dan inadequate.

 Heaton (1989) juga menilai lima komponen menulis dengan istilah
1.isi,
2.organisasi,
3.kosa kata,
4.tatabahasa, dan
5.mekanik. 
Kelima komponen tersebut diberi nilai maksimal masing-masing 30 untuk isi, 20 untuk organisasi,kosa kata 20, tata bahasa 25, dan mekanik 5. Perbedaan skor maksimal untuk setiap aspek atau komponen menulis tergantung pada bobot, peranan, dan kontribusinya dalam menulis secara keseluruhan.

Ketiga model penilaian menulis tersebut secara lengkapnya sebagai berikut:

I. Model Penilaian Menulis Menurut Brown
1. Komponen Penilian: Isi
Deskripsi: Pernyataan thesis, ide-ide terkait, pengembangan  ide-ide melalui pengalaman, ilustrasi, fakta, pendapat; penggunaan deskripsi, sebab akibat, perbandingan dan konsistensi fokus.
Skala Penilaian: 0 – 24

2. Komponen Penilian:organisasi
Deskripsi:Efektivitas pendahuluan, urutan ide yang logis dan kronologis, kesesuaian dan kesimpulan.
Skala Penilaian:0 – 20

3. Komponen Penilian: Wacana
Deskripsi:Topik, kalimat topik, kesatuan paragraf,  transisi signal penanda wacana, kohesi, koherensi, konvensi retorika,  rujukan, kelancaran ekonomis, dan variasi.
Skala Penilaian:0 – 20

4.  Komponen Penilian:Sintaksis
Deskripsi:Bagaimana kata-kata disusun menjadi kalimat.
Skala Penilaian:0 – 12

5.  Komponen Penilian:Kosa kata
Deskripsi:Pemilihan kata-kata yang tepat untuk mengembangkan dan menunjukkan ide.
Skala Penilaian:0 – 12

6.  Komponen Penilian:Mekanik
Deskripsi:Ejaan, tanda baca, kutipan referensi bila ada, kerapihan dan perwajahan atau penampilan
Skala Penilaian:0 – 12

II. Model Penilaian Menulis Menurut  Glass
1. Komponen Penilian:Ide dan Isi
Deskripsi:Ide, topik atau tema, focus,fakta dan ilustrasi tulisan.
Skor 5
Satu ide yang jelas, fokus dan sesuai topik
Semua detail konkret dan spesifik untuk mendukung ide.
Banyak detail yang menarik dan asli untuk mendukung ide.
Semua bagian-bagian terintegrasi dan sesuai.

Skor 4
Satu ide yang jelas, fokus dan sesuai topik
Adanya detail yang konkret dan spesifik
Detail yang menarik untuk mendukung ide
Semua bagian-bagian terintegrasi dan sesuai

Skor 3
Secara umum sesuai topik dan mengembangkan tema atau pesan yang jelas
Beberapa konkret dan detail, dan beberap masih bersifat umum
Beberapa detail pendukung bersifat prediksi dan sebagian bersifat umum
Mungkin ada bagian yang kurang sesuai

Skor 2
Banyak teks bersifat mengulang dan seperti kumpulan ide yang tidak berhubungan
Kurang detail khusus dan banyak yang umum
Detail yang bersifat prediksi dan sketchy

Skor 1
Tidak fokus, benar-benar keluar dari ide, hal yang tidak teridentifikasi, panjang dan tidak cukup dikembangkan
Detail tidak konsisten, tidak jelas, atau trivial

2. Komponen Penilian: Organisasi
Deskripsi:Struktur fisik, atau rhetorical structure, urutan kronologis, koherensi, kesimpulandan layout tulisan
Skor 5
Pembukaan jelas dan menarik pembaca
Susunan paragraph, kalimat topik,  jelas dan konsisten, pendukung yang relevan, dan kalimat kesimpulan yang jelas. Urutan yang logis dan efektif.
Penggunaan transisi yang yang konsisten, tepat, dan sesuai.

Skor 4
Pembukaan menarik pembaca
Setiap paragraf dienden denan konsisten
Sebagian besar ide berhubungan secara logis
Akhir yang efektif
Penggunaan transisi yang sesuai

Skor 3
Pembukaan yang efektif tetapi tidak menciptakan sense yang kuat
Semua bagian paragraf biasanya benar, kecuali satu dua yang tidak sesuai
Mencoba menggunakan hubungan yang logis
Mencoba menggunakan akhir yang efektif
Beberapa transisi masih ada yang kurang sesuai

Skor 2
Pembukaan yang lemah
Struktur paragraf cenderung kurang sesuai seperti indensi
Keterhubungan yang kurang logis
Akhir yang lemah
Hanya sedikit penggunaan transisi yang benar

Skor 1
Awal yang tidak jelas
Kurangnya pengorganisasian secara umum
Urutan dan detail tidak beraturan
Akhir yang tidak sesuai
Tidak menggunakan transisi

3. Komponen Penilian:Kosa Kata
Deskripsi:Variasi dan jenis kalimat, efesiensi dan efektivitas kalimat
Skor 5
Semua ditulis dengan kalimat lengkap tidak ada run-on
Menggunakan variasi kalimat secara konsisten (complex, compound, dan simple)
Menggunakan varaisi kalimat awal yang konsisten, bertujuan dan kreatif
Menggunakan konsisten, sesuai, dan shopisticated transisi antar kalimat

Skor 4
Mungkin ada satu fragment dan run-on
Biasanya variasi tipe-tipe kalimat
Sebagian besar kalimat memiliki awal yang bervariasi
Menggunakan transisi yang sesuai

Skor 3
Mungkin ada dua fragment dan run on
Kadang-kadang menggunakan kalimat yang bervariasi
Beberapa variasi pada bagaian awal kalimat
Beberapa menggunakan transisi yang benar

Skor 2
Tulisan memilik banyak  fragment dan run-on
Hanya menggunakan kalimat simple dan compound
Sedikit variasi di awal kalimat
Sedikit menggunakan transisi yang sesuai

Skor 1
Tidak ada sense penggunakan tanda baca dan kalimat
Hanya kalimat simple dan fragments
Semua kalimat memiliki awal yang sama
Transisis hampir tidak ada

4. Komponen Penilian:Kalimat
Deskripsi:Variasi dan jenis kalimat, efesiensi dan efektivitas kalimat.
Skor 5
Semua ditulis dengan kalimat lengkap tidak ada run-on
Menggunakan variasi kalimat secara konsisten (complex, compound, dan simple)
Menggunakan varaisi kalimat awal yang konsisten, bertujuan dan kreatif
Menggunakan konsisten, sesuai, dan shopisticated transisi antar kalimat

Skor 4
Mungkin ada satu fragment dan run-on
Biasanya variasi tipe-tipe kalimat
Sebagian besar kalimat memiliki awal yang bervariasi
Menggunakan transisi yang sesuai

Skor 3
Mungkin ada dua fragment dan run on
Kadang-kadang menggunakan kalimat yang bervariasi
Beberapa variasi pada bagaian awal kalimat
Beberapa menggunakan transisi yang benar

Skor 2
Tulisan memilik banyak  fragment dan run-on
Hanya menggunakan kalimat simple dan compound
Sedikit variasi di awal kalimat
Sedikit menggunakan transisi yang sesuai

Skor 1
Tidak ada sense penggunakan tanda baca dan kalimat
Hanya kalimat simple dan fragments
Semua kalimat memiliki awal yang sama
Transisis hampir tidak ada

5. Komponen Penilian:Konvensi
Deskripsi:Ejaan, tanda baca, kutipan referensi bila ada, konvensi dan kebersihan dan kerapian.
Skor 5
Pengejaan yang benar walaupun kata yang sulit
Tanda baca yang akurat, kreatif dan membimbing pembaca
Pemahaman yang lengkap dan penerapan yang konsisten tentang kapitalisasi Grammar dan usage benar dan berkontribusi pada kejelasan dan style 
Semua legible dan bersih.

Skor 4
Pengejaan secara umum benar
Tanca baca secara umum benar
Kapitaliasi secara umum benar
Grammar dan usage benar
Secara umum legible dan bersih

Skor 3
Beberap kata salah eja
Biasanya tanda baca benar
Kapitalisasi biasanya benar
Grammar dan usage biasanya benar
Tulisan agak legible dan paper agak bersih

Skor 2
Sering kesalahan dalam ejaan
Banyak tanda baca yang salah
Banyak kapitalisasi yang salah
Grammar dan usage sering salah
Tulisan yang ilegible membuat pembaca stumle dan messy

Skor 1
Tulisan terlalu sulti dibaca, dipahami dan diinterpretasikan karena banyak kesalahan spelling
Tanda baca tidak ada
Penggunaan kapitalisasi yang berulang
Grammar dan usage hampir salah semua
Illegible, beyond messy, pembaca tidak dapat decipher teks.

III. Model Penilaian Menulis Menurut  Heaton
1. Komponen Penilian:  Isi
Deskripsi:Ide, topik atau tema, focus, fakta dan ilustrasi tulisan.
Skala Skor:30 – 27
Kategori:Sempurna ke sangat baik
Kriteria:Penguasaan pengetahuan secara substansial

Skala Skor:26 – 22
Kategori:Baik ke rata-rata
Kriteria:Penguasaan beberapa pengetahuan yang memadai tentang substansi.

Skala Skor:21 – 17
Kategori:Cukup ke lemah/kurang
Kriteria:Penguasaan pengetahuan yang terbatas mengenai topik atau isi

Skala Skor:16 – 13
Kategori:Sangat kurang atau lemah
Kriteria:Penguasaan pengetauan tentang topik dan substansi sangat kurang.

2. Komponen Penilian: Organisasi
Deskripsi:Struktur fisik, atau rhetorical structure, urutan kronologis, koherensi, kesimpulan dan layout tulisan.
Skala Skor:20 – 18
Kategori:Sempurna ke sangat baik
Kriteria:Pengungkapan ide-ide secara jelas dan lancar dituliskan

Skala Skor:17 – 14
Kategori:Baik ke rata-rata
Kriteria:Agak kurang terorganisasi namun ide utama tetap fokus

Skala Skor:13 – 10
Kategori:Cukup ke lemah/kurang
Kriteria:Tidak lancar atau kadang-kadang ide membingungkan dan cenderung tidak nyambung

Skala Skor:9 – 7
Kategori:Sangat kurang atau lemah
Kriteria:Ide tidak terkomunikasi dan tidak bermakna- dan tidak terorganisir

3. Komponen Penilian: Kosa Kata
Deskripsi:Substansi kosa kata, pilihan kata, dan register.
Skala Skor:20 – 18
Kategori:Sempurna ke sangat baik
Kriteria:Penggunaan dan pemilihan kata/idiom/frase tepat, sesuai dan efektif

Skala Skor:17 – 14
Kategori:Baik ke rata-rata
Kriteria:Sekali-sekali muncul  kesalah bentuk kata /frase/idiom, pemilihan kata dan penggunaanya namun tidak mempengaruhi makna secara esensial

Skala Skor:13 – 10
Kategori:Cukup ke lemah/kurang
Kriteria:Sering kali muncul  kesalahan bentuk kata/frase/idiom  dan pilihan kata dan penggunaanya

Skala Skor:9 – 7
Kategori:Sangat kurang atau lemah
Kriteria:Pada prinsipnya cenderung bersifat menerjemahkan dan pilihan kata dan penggunaannya kurang memadai

4. Komponen Penilian: Tata Bahasa
Deskripsi:Variasi dan jenis kalimat, efesiensi dan efektivita.
Skala Skor:25 – 22
Kategori:Sempurna ke sangat baik
Kriteria:Penggunaan kalimat kompleks yang benar dan efektif

Skala Skor:21 – 19
Kategori:Baik ke rata-rata
Kriteria:Efektif penggunaanya namun konstruksinya cenderung sederhana

Skala Skor:18 – 11
Kategori:Cukup ke lemah/kurang
Kriteria:Ada banyak masalah dalam konstruksi kalimat

Skala Skor:10 – 5
Kategori:Sangat kurang atau lemah
Kriteria:Penggunaan konstruksi kalimat benar-benar kurang sesuai

5. Komponen Penilian: Mekanik
Deskripsi:Ejaan, tanda baca, kutipan referensi bila ada, konvensi, kebersihan dan kerapian.
Skala Skor:5
Kategori:Sempurna ke sangat baik
Kriteria:Menguasai konvensi menulis, ejaan dan tanda baca, serta kapitalisasi dengan sangat baik

Skala Skor:4
Kategori:Baik ke rata-rata
Kriteria:Kadang-kadang terjadi kesalahan dalam penggunaan konvensi menulis, ejaan dan tanda baca serta kapitalisasi

Skala Skor:3
Kategori:Cukup ke lemah/kurang
Kriteria:Sering terjadi kesalahan dalam penggunaan konvensi menulis, ejaan dan tanda baca serta kapitalisasi

Skala Skor:2
Kategori:Sangat kurang atau lemah
Kriteria:Tidak ada penguasaan  konvensi menulis, dan banyak kesalah dalam ejaan dan tanda baca serta kapitalisasi


Semoga postingan kali ini bermanfaat bagi kita semua. Amien
 
Referensi
Brown, H. Douglas. 2007.Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approch to Language Pedagogy. San Fransisco: Pearson Longman..

Glass, Kathy Tuchman.2005.Curriculum Design for Writing Instruction. California: Corwin Press.

Heaton, J.B. 1989. Writing English Language Test. New York: Longman Group UK.

Heaton,1989) dalam dalam  Tahrun. Model Pembelajaran Menulis Narasi Dalam Bahasa Inggris Bagi Siswa SMA Kelas X Palembang (Jakarta: Laporan Disertasi, 2010. 

Hyland, Ken. 2003. Second Language Writing. London: Cambridge University Press.

Reid. M. Joy. 1987. Teaching ESL Writing. Wyoming: Prentice Hall Regent.

The Influence of Sanskrit on Indonesian Language

The Influence of Sanskrit on Indonesian Language

Written by James Sneddon in The Indonesian Language, Its History and Role in Modern Society. Sydney: UNSW.2003.pp.167-172

Another phenomenon in the development of modern Indonesian has been the use of Sanskrit words and phrases. These do not come directly from Sanskrit, the major source being Old Javanese.

Between the 10th and 15th centuries, there was a prolific literature in Old Javanese, also called Kawi. Heavily influenced by Indian literature, the scholars of the Hindu-Javanese period laced their works with Sanskrit forms, much as did the scribes of Srivijaya. It is from such preserved literature that most of the new borrowings now referred to as Sanskrit originate.

In some cases, such words are hybrids drawn from Sanskrit and Kawi to form new words that did not exist in those languages, much as the word ‘television’ is composed of the elements ‘tele-’, from the Greek word for ‘far’, and ‘vision’, from the Latin word for ‘sight’, producing a word in English unknown to speakers of Latin or Ancient Greek. One group that has provided many new terms based on Sanskrit are those previously known as the ‘solidarity makers’, the military and political leaders, who attempted to promote feelings of nationalism among the population.

For such people, Sanskrit terms have been particularly prestigious. They hark back to the glorious days of great Hindu-Javanese kingdoms, particularly Majapahit, and powerful kings such as Airlangga and Hayam Wuruk. Terms suggestive of power and legitimacy have been much exploited by the military, such as perwira (officer— Sanskrit prav-ira ‘hero’) and purnawirawan (retired; veteran — Sanskrit purna ‘complete’ and v-iryav n ‘warrior’), in place of the mundane alternatives opsir (Dutch officier) and pensiunan (pensioner— Dutch pensioen with Indonesian suffix -an).

Created forms include:
- The national philosophy Pancasila (The Five Principles) and the national motto Bhinekka Tunggal Ika (Unity in Diversity).

- Sanskrit numbers, such as panca (five), as in Pancasila, dwi (two) as in dwiwarna (two colours), for the Indonesian red and white flag, and  dwifungsi (two functions — a hybrid of Sanskrit and Dutch), for the  dual role of the military in defence and politics. Other examples include tri (three), as in tridarma (the three duties), for the responsibilities of institutes of higher education, and sapta (seven), as in sapta marga (the seven ways),for the seven principles that the armed forces must obey.

- Awards for meritorious service have grandiose sanskritic names,such as Satyalancana Karya Satya (satya ‘loyal, faithful’, lancana ‘badge’, karya ‘work’), a medal for long distinguished public service, Mahaputra Adipradana (mahaputra ‘great son’, adi ‘superior’, radana ‘first’), the highest order for distinguished service to the nation, and Bintang Yudha Dharma (bintang Malay ‘star, medal’, yudha ‘war’, dharma ‘service’), war service medal. The use of pseudo-Sanskrit in such honours gives an illusion of long tradition, thereby providing legitimacy to new creations.

- After the occupation of Dutch New Guinea, the capital Hollandia was eventually renamed Jayapura, Sanskrit for ‘Victory City’, the use of Sanskrit linked to the need to legitimise the takeover.

- Many Indonesians, particularly Javanese, have Sanskrit-based names. Suharto, whose Sanskrit-derived name means ‘good possessions’, named his son Hutomo Mandala Putra (better known as Tommy Suharto). At the time, Suharto was commander of the Mandala army unit. The name that he gave his son derives from hutomo, the Javanised form of Sanskrit utama (principal, eminent), mandala (circle), the name of the army unit (significantly given a Sanskrit name, being another instance of the choice of a powerful Sanskrit word), and putra,meaning ‘prince’ in Sanskrit, but being an honorific term for ‘son’ in Indonesian. Thus the name means ‘Son of the Leader of Mandala’.

- President Sukarno gave his Japanese bride the ‘Indonesian’ name Dewi Ratna Sari, which consists of three Sanskrit words, meaning ‘goddess’, ‘jewel’ and ‘essence’ respectively. Names from the Hindu epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana, are well known to Indonesians.

- Technology Minister Habibie (Former President of Indonesia), in the last days of the Suharto government, had plans for a new Indonesian aircraft to be called Gatotkaca, after a powerful flying figure in the Mahabharata.

- When the Indonesian women’s archery team won a silver medal at the Seoul Olympics in 1988, they were widely proclaimed as the Tiga Srikandi (the Three Srikandis), after a woman archer in the Mahabharata.

- Other institutions exploit Sanskrit in the same way. The Catholic Church frequently uses it instead of Latin, as in the names of the Catholic universities Atma Jaya (Victorious Spirit) and Sanata Dharma (Genuine Good Deeds). A prominent Protestant university also has a Sanskrit name, Satya Wacana (Faithful to the Word).

- Private businesses very often choose Sanskrit names; Hotel Kartika Candra means nothing more than ‘Star Moon Hotel’, but the euphonious flow of sounds combined with the mystique of Sanskrit gives it a special prestige.

-Even lowly leather goods or bicycle shops can have Sanskrit names, like Surya Jaya (Victorious Sun) or Mitra Setia (Loyal Friend).

- Sometimes Sanskrit and Malay words are combined in names, the Sanskrit element here also adding to the aura of superiority, such as Gunung Mulia (Noble Mountain) for a book shop or Cahaya Baru (New Light) for a tailor. There are other reasons for the use of such pseudo-Sanskrit forms.

As an alternative to borrowings from European languages, they have considerable attraction. While many sound grandiose, they do not have a foreign flavour, Sanskrit phonology having been modified to the needs of Javanese, and they thus often have a native ‘feel’ about them, especially to Javanese.

- Sanskrit-based words are felt to be refined and polite, and so are popular as euphemisms for more blunt native words, such as payudara (female breasts) for Malay buah dada (literally ‘fruit of the breast’), and pidana (crime) for Malay kejahatan, which also means ‘evil’.

- A number of euphemisms occur with the prefixed component tuna- (lacking), from Sanskrit tunna- (struck, hurt, cut). In borrowings into Old Javanese, this word had developed the meaning ‘lacking, being short of’, which it retains in modern Indonesian, as in tunanetra (without sight — netra Sanskrit ‘eye’) instead of buta (blind), tunawisma (without house — Sanskrit vesma ‘house, building’) instead of gelandangan (vagrant, homeless) and tunakarya (without work — Sanskrit karya ‘work’) for penganggur (unemployed). Such terms are rarely used in everyday speech, but do appear in politer formal language

Tuna- is an example of a new affix entering the language through modern borrowing from Sanskrit. Among others are antar-, swa-, pra-, and pasca-. While some of theseappear in a few older borrowings, mainly of whole words,it is only since independence that they have becomecommon and can be recognised as prefixes.

- Antar- (inter-)occurs in words like antarpulau (inter-island), antarbenua (intercontinental) and antar golongan (inter-group). These words have probably been created under influence of English terms with theprefix ‘inter-’(which was borrowed into English from Latin and is cognate with the Sanskrit form).

- Swa-, from the Sanskrit sva (self), occurs in a fewolder forms but is mainly found in recent introductions,such as swasembada (self-sufficient), swadaya (self-help)and swalayan (self-service).
- Pra-, Sanskrit for ‘pre-’, occurs in such forms asprasejarah (prehistory — sejarah ‘history’ from Arabic), prasangka (prejudice — sangka ‘think,suppose’ from Sanskrit), prakata (foreword — kata ‘word’ being an old borrowing of Sanskrit kath ‘word, speech’) and prasekolah (preschool — sekolah from Portuguese).

- The prefix pasca- was introduced quite recently in themeaning ‘post-’ and has become rather productive in the modern language, as in pascasarjana (postgraduate —sarjana ‘scholar’ from Sanskrit), pasca-pemilu post-election — pemilu being an abbreviation for pemilihan umum ‘general election’) and pasca-jajak pendapat (post-referendum — first used in reference to strife following the 1999 referendum in East Timor). One modern coinage with the prefix pra- offers an interesting illustration of how obscure the meanings of these forms are to most people.

- The word pramugari was coined for ‘airline stewardess’.There are different accounts of the origin of mugari, but it was apparently an Old Javanese word meaning something like ‘managing affairs’. The word is popularly reanalysed as consisting of pramu, meaning something like ‘one who serves’ and gari, which seems not to be assigned any meaning. As a result of this false analysis, other terms have been coined with a component pramu, such as pramuniaga (shop assistant — niaga ‘trade’ from Sanskrit) and pramuwisma (servant — wisma ‘building, house’ from Sanskrit), although only the original pramugari is in common use in everyday speech, the others being euphemisms.

- The Sanskrit suffix -van (having, possessing), was earlier borrowed as part of certain words, such as rupawan (handsome — Sanskrit r pa ‘form, shape’) and hartawan (wealthy — Sanskrit artha ‘wealth, property’). In the modern language, its use has been greatly extended, coming to be thought of as meaning someone who practises a particular activity, as in: dramawan dramatist ilmuwan scientist (ilmu ‘science’ from Arabic ilm) olahragawan sportsman (olahraga ‘sport’) usahawan businessman (usaha ‘business, enterprise’ from Sanskrit) wartawan reporter (warta ‘news’ from Sanskrit).

- As these examples show, the suffix is not confined to combining with borrowings from Sanskrit. For these words there are corresponding female forms with -wati, such as olahragawati (sportswoman) and wartawati (female journalist), although forms with -wan can cover both male and female. While many of these neo-Sanskrit forms have been chosen for concepts in cultural areas, borrowings for science and technology are almost always taken from European languages (apart from early borrowings that sometimes came from Arabic).

- Instead of everyday matahari (sun), the Sanskrit word surya has been chosen for scientific communication, along with derivatives like tata surya (solar system — tata ‘order, arrangement’ from Sanskrit). The Sanskrit derivative angkasa (sky, heaven) is used in preference to the native langit in scientific contexts, such as in angkasa luar (outer space — luar ‘outside’) and angkasawan (astronaut


Not all proposed borrowings from Sanskrit have found favour. As mentioned, some are refined euphemisms not used in everyday speech.

- Pariwisata (tourism) occurs only in official language, turisme being the everyday word. Some forms devised by planners were not accepted at all.

- A number of forms with the prefix nir-, from the Sanskrit for ‘without, free from’, such as nirleka (prehistory — Sanskrit lekha ‘writing’), were coined by the Terminology Commission, but were not accepted by the public.

- The base pirsa, from the Sanskrit original from which periksa (examine) also comes, occurs in pirsawan (with -wan from Sanskrit) and pemirsa (with the Malay prefix pe- ‘one who does the action’). These words were coined for ‘television viewer’; however, although heard, they are not really able to compete with the Malay penonton (viewer, spectator). Likewise, the borrowing wahana could not compete against the Malay kendaraan in the meaning ‘vehicle’.

By the 20th century, direct Indian influence was long past, with Sanskrit playing no part in the life of the people of Indonesia, except in Bali. Therefore, modern borrowings from Sanskrit have been deliberate choices, sometimes by language planners but much more frequently by others familiar with or having access to Kawi sources. the mid-1960s, which has largely been spontaneous, not a result of deliberate choice but by the often casual use of English words by people directly familiar with the language.

Analisis dan Bukan Analisa

                    Analisis dan Bukan Analisa
                                              Written by Ari Julianto

Dalam perkembangannya, bahasa Indonesia menyerap unsur dari pelbagai bahasa lain, baik dari bahasa daerah maupun dari bahasa asing, seperti Sansekerta, Arab, Portugis, Belanda, atau Inggris.

Dalam penulisan sebuah karya tulis ilmiah, penggunaan kata serapan dari bahasa asing sangat dominan. Kata-kata yang sering muncul kebanyakan diambil dari sejumlah kata sains dari bahasa asing. 

Menurut Pedoman Umum Ejaan Bahasa Indonesia yang Disempurnakan (2000), berdasarkan taraf integrasinya, unsur pinjaman dalam bahasa Indonesia dapat dibagi atas dua golongan besar.

1. Unsur pinjaman yang belum sepenuhnya terserap ke dalam bahasa Indonesia, seperti reshuffle, shuttle cock, l’axplanation de l’homme. Unsur-unsur yang dipakai dalam konteks bahasa Indonesia, tetapi pengucapannya masih mengikuti cara asing.

2. Unsur pinjaman yang pengucapan dan penulisannya disesuaikan dengan kaidah bahasa Indonesia. Dalam hal ini diusahakan agar ejaannya hanya diubah seperlunya sehingga bentuk Indonesianya masih dapat dibandingkan dengan bentuk asalnya.

Unsur kedua seringkali menjadi bahan perdebatan oleh sejumlah guru ataupun dosen. Sejumlah kata serapan yang kerap dipermasalahkan antara lain:
- Analisa vs Analisis
- Hipotesa vs Hipotesis
- Diagnosa vs Diagnosis
Sufiks asing dalam bahasa Indonesia diserap sebagai bagian kata berafiks yang utuh. Kata seperti standardisasi, implementasi, dan objektif diserap secara utuh di samping kata standar,implemen, dan objek.

Ketiga kata di atas merupakan kata-kata pinjaman dari Bahasa Eropa yakni Inggris dan Belanda.
Menurut Sneddon (2003) Bahasa Indonesia memiliki sebanyak 6100 kata pinjaman dari Bahasa Eropa sebagaimana dipaparkannya sebagai berikut:

A study of borrowings into Indonesian from European languages published in 1983 identified 6100 borrowings, apparently confined to items accepted into Standard Indonesian and entering the language by the late 1970s, as identified in dictionaries and Pusat Bahasa publications.34 Of these, 5400 are claimed to be from Dutch and only 670 from English. The number of Dutch words is impressive, although many of them are restricted to use by small numbers of educated people or occur only in specialist registers.

Dijelaskannya, dari 6100 kata sebanyak 5400 kata merupakan serapan atau pinjaman dari Bahasa Belanda. Artinya, peran Bahasa Belanda cukup besar dalam pembentukan kata dalam Bahasa Indonesia. Permasalahan kata Analisa vs Analisis, Hipotesa vs Hipotesis dan Diagnosa vs Diagnosis sebenarnya dapat diatasi dengan mengulas sejumlah referensi resmi Bahasa Indonesia dan sejumlah literatur terkait lainnya.

Menurut Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia (2001) 
analisis ana.li.sis [n] (1) penelitian suatu peristiwa atau kejadian(karangan, perbuatan, dsb) untuk mengetahui keadaan yg sebenarnya (sebab-musabab, duduk perkaranya, dsb); (2) Man penguraian suatu pokok atas berbagai bagiannya dan penelaahan bagian itu sendiri serta hubungan antarbagian untuk memperoleh pengertian yg tepat dan pemahaman arti keseluruhan; (3) Kim penyelidikan kimia dng menguraikan sesuatu untuk mengetahui zat bagiannya dsb; (4) penjabaran sesudah dikaji sebaik-baiknya.

Menurut Tesaurus Bahasa Indonesia (2008)
analisis n 1 pengurangan, penjabaran; 2 kajian,kupasan, penyelidikan, studi, telaah,tilikan, ulasan, uraian;
menganalisis v membedah, menasyrihkan,menelaah, mengkaji, mengupas, menguraikan, menilik, menjabarkan, menyelidiki, menyelisik, menyidik, menyigi(ki); penganalisis n pemeriksa, peneliti, pengkaji,penilai, penyelidik, penyidik analitis a investigatif, logis, mendalam, sistematis, subtil, tajam, tersusun.

hipotesis n andaian, anggapan, asumsi, dugaan, postulat, premis, presumsi, proposisi, spekulasi,
teori, tesis, usul.

diagnosis n analisis, pemeriksaan, penelitian, penentuan

Menurut Jones (2007)
analisis [analysis] < Eng analysis (< Gk) (var. analisa)
analitik ? analitis
analitikal [analytical] < Eng analytical (f Gk)
analitis [analytic] < Du analytisch (var. analitik)

Menurut Partridge (2006)
Gr analuein, to unloose (cf the prefix ana-, on, up), hence to resolve into elements,has derivative n analusis, ML analysis, E analysis; its adj analutikos becomes LL analyticus, EF-F analytique and E analytic. ML analysis becomes EF-F analyse, whence the EF-F v analyser, whence ‘to analyse, -lyze’; whence also the late EF-F analyste, E analyst.

Gr hupotithenai has also the n hupothesis, a supposition, a foundation for argument, with adj hupothetikos: LL hypothesis, hypotheticus: perh via EF-F hypothèse and MF-F hypothétique: E hypothesis, hypothetic—often in extn hypothetical.

‘To diagnose’ is a b/f of diagnosis, from Gr diagnosis, from diagignoskein, to distinguish, lit to know dia, through. Derivative Gr diagnostikos, able to distinguish, yields diagnostic, adj (hence n), whence diagnostician: cf technician from technic.

Menurut Pedoman Umum Pembentukan Istilah (2007)
kata dengan sufiks atau akhiran -lyse (dalam Bahasa Belanda) dan -lysis (dalam bahasa Inggris) diserap ke dalam bahasa Indonesia menjadi -sis, dan bukan -sa.

-lyse (Belanda), -lysis (Inggris) menjadi -lisis
Analyse, analysis analisis
Paralyse, paralysis paralisis

Sedangkan kata Hipotesis berasal dari bahasa Yunani: hypo = di bawah; thesis = pendirian, pendapat yang ditegakkan, kepastian. Artinya, hipotesa merupakan sebuah istilah ilmiah yang digunakan dalam rangka kegiatan ilmiah yang mengikuti kaidah-kaidah berfikir biasa, secara sadar, teliti, dan terarah.

Kesimpulan
1. Pusat Bahasa Departemen Pendidikan Nasional hanya mengakui penggunaan kata Analisis, Hipotesis dan Diagnosis,
2. Penggunaan kata Analisa, Hipotesa dan Diagnosa merupakan varian yang semestinya kita hindari sebab dasar rujukan pedoman penulisannya tidak ada,
3. Para penulis, peneliti terutama guru dan dosen alangkah lebih baiknya menganjurkan penggunaan kata Analisis, Hipotesis dan Diagnosis dalam penulisan skripsi, tesis dan disertasi.

Berikut tiga pedoman umum Bahasa Indonesia yang bisa Anda unduh.
Pedoman Umum Ejaan Bahasa Indonesia yang Disempurnakan
Pedoman Umum Pembentukan Istilah
Tesaurus Bahasa Indonesia



Referensi
Jones, Russell. 2007. Loan-Words in Indonesian and Malay, Compiled by the Indonesian etymological project. Leiden : KITLV Press.

Partridgea, Erick. 2006. Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. London: Routledge.

Pusat Bahasa Departemen Pendidikan Nasional. 2000. Pedoman Umum Ejaan Bahasa Indonesia yang Disempurnakan. Jakarta: Panitia Pengembangan Bahasa Indonesia.

Pusat Bahasa Departemen Pendidikan Nasional.2007. Pedoman Umum Pembentukan Istilah. Jakarta: Panitia Pengembangan Bahasa Indonesia.

Pusat Bahasa Departemen Pendidikan Nasional. 2008. Tesaurus Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: Panitia Pengembangan Bahasa Indonesia.

Sneddon, James. 2003. The Indonesian Language, Its History and Role in Modern Society. Sydney: UNSW.

Demikianlah pembahasan kita kali ini. Semoga bermanfaat. Amien.