Using Definitions in Thesis

Using Definitions in Thesis


 
Written by
K. Srinagesh in The Principles of Experimental Research. London: Elsevier.2006. pp. 15-28





The need for definitions in experimental research emanates from the fact that experimental researchers in a given domain of nature are spread out widely over space and time. Ideally, there would be no second-guessing among them on the meaning of a word or combination of words.


I. Defining 'Definition'
How do we define 'definition'? It is somewhat disappointing to learn that there is no one definition, acceptable to most, if not all,logicians. This surprise will soon disappear when we notice that several functions performed as a way of clarifying expressions (or statements), either completely with words or with combinations of words and symbols, have all been considered legitimate acts of defining. Consequently, there are many variations of the meaning of “definition.” Having accepted this situation, we will mention (rather, quote somewhat freely) a few variations, meant to give the breadth of the word “definition,” though not its depth.

(A) A real definition involves two sets of expressions, each with a meaning of its own, and these meanings are equivalent if the definition is true.
(B) A definition is a phrase signifying a thing’s essence.(Furthermore,) A definition contains two terms as components, the genus and the differentia. A genus is what is predicated in the category of essence of a
number of things exhibiting differences in kind, and the differentia is that part of the essence that
distinguishes the species from the other species in the same genus.
(C) A definition is a way of restricting the meaning of a term that has several meanings to prevent ambiguity
and equivocation.
(D) A definition is true . . . if the defining term has the same designation as the term to be defined.
(E) Definition is a rule of substitution.
(F) “Definition” = statement that one term has the same designation as another term.
(G) A definition is the statement of the meaning of a word, etc.
(H) A definition is a brief description of a thing by its properties.
(I) A definition is an explanation of the meaning of a word or expression.

II. Common Terms Used in Definitions
Though the word “definition” itself defies definition, the components that constitute a definition are delimited fairly well as follows:

Term: Word or group of words, such as phrases, clauses, or one or more assertive sentences. To the extent that terms are defined, when need be, communication between or among researchers becomes precise. There may be occasions when the term is a group of related words, a phrase,wherein it is not the literal meaning of individual words that is significant, but that of the bunch of words as a whole, such as “shadow boxing,” “end of the tunnel”; these are often referred to as idioms. In such cases, we need to go to books of idioms, which, though not as common as dictionaries, are available in most well developed languages like English. The language of science is usually sober; there is little room for idioms like those above or for other figurative words or word combinations.

The need to define a term when the term is a whole sentence is less often encountered; when it is, the definition usually takes the form of an explanation, often with illustrative example(s). It is worthy of note that in his great work, the Principia, Isaac Newton starts with definitions, covering the first dozen or so pages,before even mentioning the problems addressed therein.

III. Varieties of Definitions
A. Direct Definitions
Direct definitions are explicit in nature; hence, the definiens can replace the definiendum without any further need for elaboration or explanation. If a definition forms a part of a whole statement, and if after replacing the definiendum with the definiens, the statement can be repeated without any loss or alteration in the original meaning, it is also a case of direct definition.

B. Indirect Definitions
Indirect definitions are such that by replacing the definiendum with definiens, both of these being either isolated or part of a statement, the meaning of the statement remains open to further relevant questions. There are two variations within this.

Firstly, when a word or a combination of words conveys meaning far beyond what a usual-length definiens can clarify, because the definiendum may have several aspects, some of which are implied and cannot be demonstrated, the definition is referred to as an implied definition: “religion,” “democracy,” and “honesty” are some examples. It is often the case that such definitions have emotional overtones.

Secondly, if y is the descendent (the word to be defined) of x, then y may be a son, a grandson, or many more generations removed, and yet be the descendent of x. The definition then for “descendent,” the definiendum, is uncertain and open to further question, in this case, as to how many generations removed or recurring. The definition, whichever way it is offered, needs to be qualified; this is often referred to as a recursive definition.

C. Informal Definitions
In most cases of human discourse, definitions are blended so nicely that we do not notice them as such. In a sense, every word of every language, either spoken or written, may be considered a definition. We live with these without needing to be conscious of their definitional nature. Most experimental scientists, most of the time, enjoy the same privilege. But occasions may arise unnoticed,though rare, when additional effort may be necessary to highlight the aspect of “definition” in their discourse. The degree of highlighting required and the amount of clarity intended, among other circumstances, decide the degree of formality that is desirable in the process of defining. Defining done with a low degree of formality is usually referred to as informal definition.

D. Formal Definitions
However, we require formal definition most often in research, and it needs to be done with a tighter grip on the words. One possible way is, “‘Brainwashing’ has the same designation as ‘Changing the other person’s opinion by subtle repetitions of slogans.’” Even more formal definitions avoid the words altogether between the definiendum (x) and the definiens (y) and connect the two with the “=” sign in the form “x = y”; the “=” does not have the same meaning as in mathematics. Originating from Principia Mathematica by Alfred Whitehead and Bertrand Russell, a formal way of defining has come to be widely accepted. It has the following form:
Beauty . = . that which is pleasing to look at. Df.
The term on the left-hand side is the definiendum and that on the right-hand side is the definiens, ending with “Df.” to denote that this is a definition.

E. Lexical  Definitions
Lexical definitions, obviously, are the meanings as listed in the dictionaries. As such, we find the current and established meaning(s) of a word. For instance, in the United States, currently, the word “suck” has acquired a meaning that has sexual connotation, unlike in other English-speaking societies or in the past. It is reasonable that in the near future, we will see this new usage reflected in American dictionaries. Also, dictionaries list more than one meaning for many words. It is then left to the individual to find the appropriate meaning by context.

F. Stipulated Definitions
Stipulated definitions assign special or restrictive meanings to words (or combinations of words) that otherwise have a colloquial usage, which is most often obvious. “Stress,” for instance, is a word commonly used to connote that someone is mentally tired, but engineers take the same word, define it as “load per unit area,” and assign to it a mathematical format:
s = P ÷ A where s stands for stress, P for load, and A for area.

A variation of the stipulated definition will occur when a word (or a combination of words) is improvised to describe a certain thing or phenomenon within a limited and exclusive domain. The use of the word “bubbleballing” within the game of tennis is an example. In such  circumstances, the definition is known as an impromptu definition. It is obvious that such definitions should not have currency outside the particular domain, in this case, the game of tennis.

G. Nominal Definitions
A nominal definition is most often a common understanding of what a certain word or group of words should mean for the users. In this sense, the dictionary meanings of words in any language have this characteristic. The entire human discourse depends on words, though we seldom have occasions to notice these as definitions.In mathematics and the sciences, we depend on a large number of symbols. That “3” stands for “three” and “23” stands for “the sum of two tens and three ones” is so much a part of our routine that we do not think of them as definitions. In addition to the economy of space and time, both in writing and reading,
such symbols are instrumental for the clear thinking needed for further development. What distinguishes a nominal definition is that it is neither true nor false and, hence, cannot be a proposition.

H. Real Definitions
In contrast, a real definition can serve as a proposition, which means that it is either true or false, not by itself, but as decided by individual people. If “music” is defined as “a series of sound variations, capable of producing a pleasing sensation,” then there is plenty of room to dispute whether some of modern music is music or something else, to be defined using different words as definiens.

I. Definitions by Denotation
Denotation is a way of further clarifying the meaning of a term by means of examples or instances, which most often follow, but may precede, the formal part of the definition. A good example is Newton’s definition that we quoted earlier, wherein the passage “the force of the same loadstone is greater at less distance” is used to substantiate “the accelerative quantity of a centripetal force” that he is defining.

J. Ostensive Definitions
Ostensive definitions cannot be described exhaustively by words alone but can be demonstrated or pointed to easily to obtain complete satisfaction. If a painter is asked to describe (or define) yellow ochre as a color, the one way most suitable to him is to squeeze on his palette a thread of paint from his tube of yellow ochre and ask the other person to look at it.

IV. What Definitions Should and Should Not Do
Even among logicians, there is no unanimity as to what ought to be called “definitions.” Having said this, we mention below briefly, without the constraints of quotation, some of the desirable and some of the undesirable traits of definitions, as expressed by logicians.

A definition should
1. Make communication possible when it is impossible without it, or make communication clear
when it would be fuzzy without it
2. Have two terms: (a) the term to be defined (the meaning of which, in the context, is doubtful),
and (b) the term that does the defining (the meaning of which is expected to be understood)
Example: Painter . = . one who paints pictures. Df.
3. Distinguish between things and words Example: In “Anger is harmful,” we are talking about the thing (emotion) “anger.” In contrast, in “‘Anger’ has five letters,” we are talking about the word “anger” (not about the emotion “anger”). The means of making this distinction is to use the quotation marks judiciously.
4. Distinguish between the noun and verb forms of some words, which can be used in both forms.
Example: “I am writing this passage,” versus “This writing is done well.”
5. Give the essence of that which is to be defined. The definiens must be equivalent to the definiendum—
it must be applicable to everything of which the definiendum can be predicated, and applicable to nothing else.
6. Be so selected that, whether explicit or implicit, the attributes known to belong to the thing defined
must be formally derivable from the definition.

A definition should not
1. Use examples as the sole means of defining, though examples may supplement a given definition.
We have seen this done, as it should be, in the definition quoted from Newton’s Principia.
2. Use description as the sole means of defining. Here again, the definition quoted from Newton’s
Principia, done as it should be, may be considered as containing a supplementary description.
3. Use exaggeration (as a form of definition)
Example: “Definition” by Bernard Shaw: Teacher: He who can, does. He who cannot, teaches.
4. Be circular; it must not, directly or indirectly, contain the subject to be defined (some times referred
to as tautology)
Examples:
a. Hinduism . = . the religion followed by the Hindus. Df. This is obviously and completely circular.
b. Hinduism . = . the religious and social doctrines and rites of the Hindus. Df. This is from a respectable dictionary; the circularity is obvious, though not direct.
c. Hinduism . = . the religious and social system of the Hindus, a development of ancient Brahmanism. Df. This is from another respectable dictionary.
The addition of the phrase “a development of ancient Brahmanism” is an improvement, but not
in the direction of reducing the circularity. Instead, use the form:
d. Hinduism . = . religious and social rites and doctrines that are a development of ancient Brahmanism.Df.
The circularity is completely avoided, though the new word introduced, “Brahmanism,” needs
to be defined, in turn. Be phrased in the negative when it can be phrased in the positive
Example:
a. Night . = . part of the day wherein there is no sunlight. Df.
b. Night . = . the time from sunset to sunrise.Df.
Though (a) may be literally correct, (b) fulfills the logical requirement better. However, there are legitimate exceptions.
Example:
c. Orphan . = . child who has no parents. Df.
This is acceptable, though it is possible to remove “no” by defining the word differently as
d. Orphan . = . one who is bereaved of parents.Df.
6. Contain obscure term(s) . This pertains to the purpose of definition, namely, to clarify, not to complicate, confuse, or lead astray. The earlier example, in which “Brahmanism” was used to define “Hinduism,” is an instance.

Literature Review Analysis

            Literature Review Analysis
 
Written by John W. Creswell in Educational Research, Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research. Boston: Pearson.2012. pp.104-105

A. Quantitative Study
In the quantitative parent involvement study (Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005), the citations to the literature cluster around the beginning and the end of the article.

In the opening, Paragraph 01, the authors cite studies to document the importance of the problem: the need for parent involvement in their children’s educational processes at home and at school.

Paragraph 02, the authors explain that a model exists in the literature that might explain parent involvement—the Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler model. They also present research questions consistent with factors in this model that are expected to influence parent involvement: parents’ role construction, parents’ self-efficacy, perceptions of teacher invitations, and perceptions of adolescent invitations. You need to see how the authors identify, earlier in the article, the four primary factors that will be the focus of the study.

The paragraphs to follow (03–10) merely summarize the literature on each of these four factors.
 
Paragraph 03 begins with an overview of many possible factors that might influence parent involvement.

Paragraphs 04–08 review the literature on each of the four factors.  

Paragraph 09, the authors reflect on the relative importance of each of the four factors when measured together. 

Paragraph 10 introduces the idea that grade level will influence parent outcomes and thereby anticipates this element being introduced into the study.

Then, when you see Paragraph 13, which is the intent or purpose of the study, it makes sense because we now know that four factors and grade level will be of primary importance in this study.

Finally, the authors return again to the literature in Paragraphs 34–43, in which they first state their major results and then compare their results to findings suggested by authors in the literature as well as the theory mentioned at the beginning of the article.

In summary, the literature in the parent involvement study:
- Documents the importance of the research problem at the beginning of the study
- Provides evidence for important components of the model to be tested
- Provides evidence for the research questions
- Provides an explanation for the results at the end of the study by citing other studies and by returning to the theoretical predictions.

B. Qualitative Study
Now let’s turn to a qualitative study to see the role of the literature. In the qualitative mothers’ trust in principals study (Shelden et al., 2010), the literature serves some of the same purposes and some different purposes than did the  literature in the quantitative study. The overall use of the literature in this qualitative article is to establish the importance of trust in the parent–school relationship.

Paragraphs 01–11 might be seen as a discussion of the importance of the problem of trust, and the literature unfolds from the broad concept of parents being involved in the schools (Paragraph 01), to the importance of trust and how it is defined (Paragraphs 02–03), how trust is critical in schools, especially for leaders (Paragraphs 04–06), to the important relevance for parents of children with disabilities and their due process needs (Paragraph 07–11).

This broad-to-narrow perspective that the authors convey in the introduction establishes the importance of trust for parents of children with disabilities. As far as using literature in the introduction, we see in this qualitative study more reliance on the literature than is typically found in qualitative projects. However, it is important to see this literature as establishing the importance of the problem of trust and its consequences, rather than specifying the questions that need to be asked (as is found in a quantitative study).

In this sense, this introduction is a good qualitative presentation of the opening literature for a study. In addition, the authors return to the literature on trust at the end of the study and compare the fi ndings from their study with this literature to assess whether their fi ndings were consistent (Paragraphs 59–68).

In summary, the literature in the qualitative mothers’ trust in principals study:
- Documents the importance of the research problem at the beginning of the study
- Does not foreshadow the research questions (which are broad in scope to encourage participants to provide their views)
- Is used to compare with the findings of the present study at the end of the study.

Hope today's posting will be useful for all of us. Amien.

Basic Tips for Writing a Literary Analysis

Basic Tips for Writing a Literary Analysis
 
by Sierra College (2001)


1. Write in the present tense.
EXAMPLE: In Faulkner's "A Rose for Emily," the townspeople visit Emily Grierson's house because it smells bad.

NOT: In Faulkner's "A Rose for Emily," the townspeople visited Emily Grierson's house because it smelled bad.

2. Normally, keep yourself out of your analysis; in other words, use the third person (no I or you). Some instructors may require or allow the first or second person in an informal analysis if the usage is consistent, however, so check with your instructor.

FIRST PERSON: I believe that the narrator in "Sonny's Blues" is a dynamic character because I read many details about the changes in his attitude toward and relationship with Sonny.

THIRD PERSON: The narrator in "Sonny's Blues" is a dynamic character who changes his attitude toward and relationship with Sonny as the story progresses.

SECOND PERSON: At the end of "Everyday Use," Mama realizes that Maggie is like her but has not received the attention you should give your daughter to help her attain self-esteem.

THIRD PERSON: At the end of "Everyday Use," Mama realizes that Maggie is like her but has not received enough attention to build self-esteem.

3. Avoid summarizing the plot (i.e., retelling the story literally). Instead analyze (form a thesis about and explain) the story in literary terms.

PLOT SUMMARY: In Edgar Allan Poe's "The Tell-Tale Heart," the mad narrator explains in detail how he kills the old man, who screams as he dies. After being alerted by a neighbor, the police arrive, and the madman gives them a tour through the house, finally halting in the old man's bedroom, where he has buried the man beneath the floor planks under the bed. As he is talking, the narrator hears what he thinks is the old man's heart beating loudly, and he is driven to confess the murder.

ANALYSIS: Though the narrator claims he is not mad, the reader realizes that the narrator in "The Telltale Heart" is unreliable and lies about his sanity. For example, the mad narrator says he can hear "all things in the heaven and in the earth." Sane people cannot. He also lies to the police when he tells them that the shriek they hear occurs in his dream. Though sane people do lie, most do not meticulously plan murders, lie to the police, and then confess without prompting. Finally, the madman is so plagued with guilt that he hears his own conscience in the form of the old man's heart beating loudly. Dead hearts do not beat, nor do sane people confuse their consciences with the sounds of external objects.

4. Include a clear thesis statement which addresses something meaningful about the literature, often about the theme.

5. Use literary terms to discuss your points (i.e., character, theme, setting, rhyme, point of view, alliteration, symbols, imagery, figurative language, protagonist, and so forth).

NONLITERARY TERMS: To show that women are important, Adrienne Rich writes about Aunt Jennifer and the tigers that she creates in her needlework.

LITERARY TERMS: The poem "Aunt Jennifer's Tigers" contains vivid images and symbols which reveal a feminist perspective.

6. Do not confuse characters' (in fiction or drama) or speakers' (in poetry) viewpoints with authors' viewpoints.

AUTHOR: As a black woman, Eudora Welty faces racism in "A Worn Path." (Eudora Welty, the author, was not black.)

CHARACTER: As a black woman, Old Phoenix faces racism in "A Worn Path." (Old Phoenix, a character, is black.)

POET: In "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening," Robert Frost is tempted to drift into his subconscious dream world, yet he knows he has other obligations to fulfill when he states, "But I have promises to keep, / And miles to go before I sleep." (The pronoun "I" refers to the speaker of the poem, not to Robert Frost, the poet.)

SPEAKER: In "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening," the speaker is tempted to drift into his subconscious dream world, yet he knows he has other obligations to fulfill when he states, "But I have promises to keep, / And miles to go before I sleep." (Here the "I" correctly refers to the speaker of the poem.)

7. Support your points with many quotations and paraphrases, but write the majority of your paper in your own words with your own ideas.

8. When writing a research paper that includes literary criticism, make sure that you form your own opinion rather than merely restate those of the critics. You may, however, use the critics' views to support yours.

9. Cite prose, poetry, drama, critics, and any other sources used according to specialized MLA standards.

Statistik Pendidikan

                      Statistik Pendidikan
 

Written by Ari Julianto


Menurut Subana dkk (2000: 15) Statistik adalah kesimpulan fakta berbentuk angka yang disusun dalam bentuk daftar atau tabel yang menggambarkan suatu persoalan.

Menurut Editorial Team (1992: 6991) asal kata statistik berasal dari kata New Latin yakni statisticus artinya 'negara' atau Bahasa Inggrisnya 'state'dan didefinisikan sebagai kumpulan matematika dan interpretasi data numerik khususnya analisis ciri-ciri populasi dari sampling.

Sedangkan menurut Irianto (2004), Statistik pada dasarnya merupakan alat bantu untuk memberi gambaran atas suatu kejadian melalui bentuk yang sederhana, baik berupa angka – angka maupun grafik – grafik, mengingat peranannya sebagai alat bantu, maka perlu di sadari bahwa kunci keberhasilan analisis statistik masih terletak pada pemakaiannya.

Siringoringo dan Nursamsi (2009: 1) memaparkan bahwa istilah Statistika sudah lama dikenal sejak jaman dahulu. Statistika bermula sebagai suatu cara berhitung untuk membantu pemerintah yang ingin mengetahui kekayaan dan banyaknya warga dalam usaha menarik pajak ataupun untuk berperang.

Di sisi lain, kata Statistika (Statistic) berasal dari bahasa Latin “Status” yang berkaitan dengan suatu Negara dalam arti kesatuan politik. Kata ini kemudian masuk dalam kamus bahasa Inggris sebagai “state” pada abad XVIII. Kemudian berkembang menjadi suatu cabang ilmu pengetahuan (Siagian dan Sugiarto, 2006).

Menurut Widyantini dan Pujiati (2004: 1) tahun 1791 - 1799, Dr .E.A.W Zimmesman mengenalkan kata statistika dalam bukunya Statistical Account of Scotland. Tahun 1981 - 1935 R. Fisher mengenalkan analisis varians dalam literatur statistiknya. Sedangkan di Indonesia Pengantar Statistika telah dicantumkan dalam kurikulum matematika Sekolah Dasar sejak tahun 1975. Hal itu disebabkan karena sekitar lingkungan kita berada selalu berkaitan dengan Statistik. Misalnya di kantor kelurahan kita mengenal statistik desa, di dalamnya memuat keadaan penduduk mulai dari banyak penduduk, pekerjaannya, banyak anak, dan sebagainya.

Nama statistik bergantung pada masalah yang dijelaskan oleh statistik itu, misalnya statistik pendidikan, statistik ekonomi, statistik kependudukan dan lain sebagainya. Sedangkan statistika adalah ilmu pengetahuan yang berhubungan dengan cara-cara pengumpulan data, pengolahan data, penganalisisan data, penariakn kesimpulan, dan pembuatan keputusan yang cukup beralasan berdasarkan fakta yang ada.

Menurut Siringoringo dan Nursamsi (2009: 2) menyebutkan bahwa statistik dapat dibagi atas dua bagian menurut tingkat pekerjaan yang dapat dilakukan dengan metode-metode yang disediakan oleh setiap bagian itu, yakni:

a. Statistika deskriptif
Statistika deskriptif adalah metode-metode yang berkaitan dengan pengumpulan dan penyajian suatu gugus data sehingga memberikan inforniasi yang berguna.

b. Statistika induktif (inferensia statistika)
Statistika induktif mencakup semua metode yang berhubungan dengan analisis sebagian data untuk kemudian sampai pada peranialan atau penarikan kesimpulan mengenai keseluruhan gugus data induknya.

Menurut Osuji (2006: 4) menyebutkan pentingnya statistik bagi penelitian antara lain:
1. memberikan deskripsi yang lebih tepat,
2. membuat kita lebih terarah dan tepat alam berfikir,
3. membuat kita mampu meringkaskan hasil penelitian,
4. membuat kita mampu menarik kesimpulan umum,
5. membuat kita mampu memprediksikan sesuatu,
6. membuat kita mampu menganalisis faktor-faktor penyebab yang kompleks,

Statistik dalam dunia pendidikan dapat dirasakan manfaatnya oleh para pemakai (seperti pendidik, mahasiswa, peneliti dan sebagainya) apabila banyak menunjuang kelancaran tugas para 'petugas ' pendidikan tadi. Misalnya dipakai dalam kegiatan evaluasi (penilaian) dan penelitian. Dalam kegiatan evaluasi, statistik menjadi alat bantu untuk menganalisis dan menyimpulkan data hasil evaluasi. Sebahai contoh, ketika para guru mengevaluasi ketercapaian hasil pendidikan, biasanya data yang terkumpul berbentuk data kuantitatif sebelum diinterpretasikan menjadi data kualitatif.

Pengolahan data kuantitatif tersebut diuji dengan menggunakan statistik (ukuran) yang tepat sehingga diperoleh kesimpulan bahwa testee (subjek yang dievaluasi) itu berukuran tinggi-rendah., baik-jelek, atau berhasil-gagal. Dalam kegiatan penelitian pendidikan, statistik banyak dipakai sebagai pendeskripsi data kuantitatif yang terkumpul, melalui ukuran rata-rata, simpangan baku, dan sejenisnya. Selain itu, statistik sangat berperan untuk menguji keberlakuan suatu hipotesis melalui alur pengujian hipotesis.

Menurut Subana dkk (2000: 15) bentuk data statistik pendidikan antara lain:
1. Data prestasi belajar siswa (misalnya nilai hasil tes, nilai rapor, nilai intelegensi, dan kepribadian dan lain sebagainya),

2. Data tentang gambaran peserta didik, tenaga pengajar, pegawai dan lulusan (misalnya, jumlah siswa, guru berkualifikasi tertentu, lulusan yang melanjutkan /tidak melanjutkan, prestasi dan lain sebagainya,

3. Data tentang anggaran pendidikan (misalnya, belanja rutin pegawai, dana kesiswaan dan lain sebagainya),

4. Data tentang kepustakaan, administartif, dan perlengkapan (misalnya jumlah buku menurut kategori tertentu, jumlah alat sekolah dan lain sebagainya).


Referensi
Editorial Team. 1992. The American Heritage Dictionary of The English Language. Third Edition. Boston: Houghton Miffin.

Irianto, Agus. 2004. Statistik Konsep Dasar dan Aplikasinya. Jakarta: Prenada Media.

Osuji, U.S.A.2006. Statistical Methods II. Abuja: National Open University of Nigeria.

Siagian, Dergibson dan Sugiarto. 2006. Metode Statistika. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama.

Siringoringo, Hotniar dan Rachmat Agus Nursamsi.2009. Pengantar Statistika.Seri Diktat Kuliah. Penerbit Gunadarma.

Subana, Moersetyo,  Sudrajat. 2000. Statistik Pendidikan. Bandung: Pustaka Setia.

Widyantini, Th. dan Pujiati. 2004. Statistika. Disampaikan pada Diklat Instruktur/Pengembang Matematika SD Jenjang Lanjut Tanggal 6 s.d. 19 Agustus 2004 di PPPG Matematika. Yogyakarta: Depdiknas.

Semoga postingan kali ini bermanfaat bagi kita semua. Amin.

Multiple-Choice Test Items

        Multiple-Choice Test Items

Written by Thomas M, Haladyna in in Developing and Validating Multiple-Choice Test Items. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.2004. pp 67-92

A test item is the basic unit of observation in any test. A test item usually contains a statement that elicits a test taker response. That response is scorable, usually 1 for a correct response and 0 for an incorrect response, or the response might be placed on a rating scale from low to high.

A test is a measuring device intended to describe numerically the degree or amount of learning under uniform, standardized conditions. In educational testing, most tests contain a single item or set of test items intended to measure a domain of knowledge or skills or a cognitive ability. In the instance of the latter, a single test item might be a writing prompt or a complex mathematics problem that may be scored by one or more judges using one or more traits and associated rating scales. Responses to a single test item or a collection of test items are scorable. The use of scoring rules helps create a test score that is based on the test taker's responses to these test items.

I. Conventional Multiple-Choice
The most common Multiple-Choice (MC) format is conventional. We have three variations. Each variation has three parts:
1. a stem
The stem is the stimulus for the response. The stem should provide a complete idea of the knowledge to be indicated in selecting the right answer. The first item in Example 1.1 shows the question format. The second item shows the incomplete stem (a partial sentence) format. The third item shows the best answer format.

2. the correct choice
The correct choice is undeniably the one and only right answer. In the question format, the correct choice can be a word, phrase, or sentence. In some rare circumstances, it can be a paragraph or even a drawing or photograph (if the distractors are also paragraphs, drawings, or photographs). However, the use of paragraphs, drawings, photographs, and the like make the administration of the item inefficient. With the incomplete stem, the second part of the sentence is the option, and one of these is the right answer. With the best-answer format, all the options are correct, but only one is unarguably the best.

3. several wrong answers, called foils, misleads, or distractors
Distractors are the most difficult part of the test item to write. A distractor is an unquestionably wrong answer. Each distractor must be plausible to test takers who have not yet learned the knowledge or skill that the test item is supposed to measure. To those who possess the knowledge asked for in the item, the distractors are clearly wrong choices. Each distractor should resemble the correct choice in grammatical form, style, and length. Subtle or blatant clues that give away the correct choice should always be avoided. The number of distractors required for the conventional MC item is a matter of some controversy (Haladyna & Downing, 1993). When analyzing a variety of tests, Haladyna and Downing (1993) found that most items had only one or two "working" distractors. They concluded that three options (a right answer and two distractors) was natural. Few items had three working distractors.

Example 1.1 Question Format
Who is John Gait?....................stem
A. A rock star....................... foil or distractor
B. A movie actor......................foil or distractor
C. A character in a book.............. correct choice
Incomplete Stem (Partial Sentence)
John Gait is a character in an Ayn Rand novel who is remembered
for his
A. integrity.
B. romantic tendencies.
C. courage.
Best Answer
Which is the most effective safety feature in your car?
A. Seat belt
B. Front air bag
C. Anti-lock braking system

II. Matching
A popular variation of the conventional MC is the matching format. We use this format when we have a set of options that seems useful for two or more items. The matching format begins with a set of options at the top followed by a set of stems below. The instructions that precede the options and stems tell the test taker how to respond and where to mark answers. As shown in Example 1.2, we have five options and six statements. We could easily expand the list of six statements into a longer list, which makes the set of items more comprehensive in testing student learning. In a survey of current measurement textbooks, Haladyna et al. (2002) discovered that every measurement textbook they surveyed recommended the matching format. It is interesting that there is no cited research on this format in any of these textbooks or prior reviews of research on item formats.

Example 1.2 Mark your answer on the answer sheet.
For each item select the correct answer from options provided below.
A. Minnesota
B. Illinois
C. Wisconsin
D. Nebraska
E. Iowa
1. Home state of the Hawkeyes
2. Known for its cheese heads
3. Land of many lakes
4. Cornhuskers country
5. The largest of these states
6. Contains Cook County

The matching format has many advantages:
1. Matching items are easy to construct.
2. The presentation of items is compact. The example just provided could be expanded to produce as many as 30 items on a single page.
3. This format is popular and widely accepted.
4. Matching lends itself nicely to testing understanding of concepts, principles, and procedures.
5. Matching is efficient based on the amount of student testing time needed to answer a set of matching test items.
6. The options do not have to be repeated. If we reformatted this into conventional MC, it would require the repeating of the five options for each stem.

III. Extended Matching
An extended-matching (EM) format is an MC variation that uses a long list of options linked to a long list of item stems. According to Case and Swanson (1993), a set of EM items has four components:
1. a theme,
2. a set of options,
3. a lead-in statement, and
4. a set of stems.
The theme focuses the test taker in a context. Example 1.3 shows a generic EM format. The options are possible right answers. This list of options can be lengthy. In fact, the list of options might be exhaustive of the domain of possible right answers. The list of options for an EM item set must also be homogeneous in content.

Example 1.3 A generic extended-matching item
Theme: Neuropsychological tests
Options
A. Cognitive Estimates Test
B. Digit Span
C. Go-No Go Test
D. Mini Mental State Examination
E. National Adult Reading Test
F. Raven's Progressive Matrices
G. Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test
H. Stroop Test
I. Wechsler Memory Scale
J. Wisconsin Card Sorting Test
Lead-in: A 54-year-old man has a year's history of steadily progressive personality changes. He has become increasingly apathetic and appears depressed. His main complaint is increasing frontal headaches. On examination, he has word finding difficulties. EEG shows frontal slowing that is greater on the left. 
Which test should you consider?
Stems:
1. You are concerned that he may have an intracranial space-occupying lesion.
2. Test indicates that his current performance IQ is in the low average range.
3. The estimate of his premorbid IQ is 15 points higher than his current performance IQ. It is recommended that he has a full WAIS IQ assessment to measure both performance and verbal IQ. On the WAIS, his verbal IQ is found to be impaired over and above his performance IQ.
Which test is part of the WAIS verbal subtests?
4. An MRI can shows a large meningioma compressing dorsolateral prefrontal cortex on the left. Which test result is most
likely to be impaired?

The EM format is highly recommended for many good reasons.
1. Items are easy to write.
2. Items can be administered quickly.
3. The cognitive process may be understanding and, in some instances, application of knowledge that we associate with problem solving.
4. These items seem less resilient to cuing, whereas with conventional MC one item can cue another.
5. EM items are more resilient to guessing. Moreover, Haladyna and Downing (1993) showed that conventional MC items seldom have many good distractors; thus, guessing a right answer is more likely with conventional MC.

IV. Alternate Choice
Alternate Choice (AC) is a conventional MC with only two options. Ebel (1981, 1982), a staunch advocate of this format, argued that many items in achievement testing are either-or, lending them nicely to the AC format. Downing (1992) reviewed the research on this format and agreed that AC is viable. Haladyna and Downing (1993) examined more than 1,100 items from four standardized tests and found many items have a correct answer and only one working distractor. The other distractors were nonfunctioning. They concluded that many of these items were naturally in the AC format. Example 1.4 shows a simple AC item

Example 1.4 Alternative-choice items measuring writing skills.
1. (A-Providing, B-Provided) that all homework is done, you
may go to the movie.
2. It wasn't very long (A-before, B-until) Earl called Keisa.
3. Knowledge of (A-preventative, B-preventive) medicine will
lengthen your life.
4. All instructions should be written, not (A-oral, B-verbal).
5. Mom divided the pizza (A-between, B-among) her three boys.

The AC has several attractive characteristics and some limitations:
1. The most obvious advantage is that writing the AC item is easy to write.The item writer only has to think of a right answer and one plausible distractor.
2. The efficiency of the use of this format with respect to printing costs,ease of test construction, and test administration is high.
3. Another advantage is that if the item has only two options, one can assign more AC items to a test per testing period than with conventional MC items. Consequently, the AC format provides better coverage of the content domain.
4. AC items are not limited to recall but can be used to measure understanding,some cognitive skills, and even some aspects of abilities (Ebel,1982).

V. True-False
The True-Falese (TF) format has been well established for classroom assessment but seldom used in standardized testing programs.Like other two-option formats, TF is subject to many abuses. The most common may be a tendency to test recall of trivial knowledge. Example 1.5 shows the use of TF for basic knowledge.

Example 1.5 Examples of true-false items.
Mark A on your answer sheet if true and B if false.
1. The first thing to do with an automatic transmission that does not work is to check the transmission fluid. (A)
2. The major cause of tire wear is poor wheel balance. (B)
3. The usual cause of clutch "chatter" is in the clutch pedal linkage. (A)
4. The distributor rotates at one half the speed of the engine crankshaft. (B)

The advantages of TF items are as follows:
1. TF items are easy to write.
2. TF items can measure important content.
3. TF items can measure different cognitive processes.
4. More TF items can be given per testing period than conventional MC items.
5. TF items are easy to score.
6. TF items occupy less space on the page than other MC formats, therefore minimizing the cost of production.
7. The judgment of a proposition as true or false is realistic.
8. We can reduce reading time.
9. Reliability of test scores is adequate.

VI. Complex Multiple-Choice
This item format offers test takers three choices regrouped into four options, as shown in Example 1.6 The Educational Testing Service first introduced this format, and the National Board of Medical Examiners later adopted it for use in medical testing (Hubbard, 1978). Because many items used in medical and health professions testing programs had more than one right answer, complex MC permits the use of one or more correct options in a single item. Because each item is scored either right or wrong, it seems sensible to set out combinations of right and wrong answers in an MC format where only one choice is correct.

Example 1.6 Complex multiple-choice item.
Which actors appeared in the movie Lethal Weapon 10?
1. Mel Gibson
2. Dannie Glover
3. Vin Diesel
A. 1 and 2
B. 2 and 3
C. 1 and 3
D. 1,2, and 3

Complex MC was popular in formal testing programs, but its popularity is justifiably waning. Albanese (1992), Haladyna (1992b), and Haladyna and Downing (1989b) gave several reasons
to recommend against its use:
1. Complex MC items may be more difficult than comparable single-best answer MC.
2. Having partial knowledge, knowing that one option is absolutely correct or incorrect, helps the test taker identify the correct option by eliminating distractors. Therefore, test-taking skills have a greater influence on test performance than intended.
3. This format produces items with lower discrimination, which in turn lowers test score reliability.
4. The format is difficult to construct and edit.
5. The format takes up more space on the page, which increases the page length of the test.
6. The format requires more reading time, thus reducing the number of items of this type one might put in a test. Such a reduction negatively affects the sampling of content, therefore reducing the validity of interpretations and uses of test scores.

VII. Multiple True-False
The Multiple True-False (MTF), which is sometimes referred to as Type X, has much in common with the TF format. The distinguishing characteristic between the two formats is that the TF items should be nonhomogeneous in content and cognitive demand, whereas the MTF has much in common and usually derives its commonality from a lead-in statement, such as with the EM format. Example 1.7 names a book read by the class, and five statements are offered that may be applicable to the book. Each student has to link the statement to the book plausibly. Some statement are true and others are false.

Example 1.7 Multiple True-False
The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe by C. S. Lewis can best be summarized by saying:
1. A penny saved is a penny earned.
2. If you give them an inch, they will take a mile.
3. Good will always overcome evil.
4. Do not put off tomorrow what you can do today.
5. Do not put all your eggs in one basket

The advantages of the MTF format are as follows:
1. This format avoids the disadvantages of the complex MC format.
2. Recent research has shown that the MTF item format is effective as to reliability and validity,
3. This format is efficient in item development, examinee reading time, and the number of questions that can be asked in a fixed time.

Reference
Albanese, M. A. 1992. Type K items. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practices, 12,28-33.

Case, S. M, & Swanson, D. B. 1993. Extended matching items: A practical alternative
to free response questions. Teaching and Learning in Medicine, 5(2), 107-115.

Ebel, R. L. 1981, April. Some advantages of alternate-choice test items. Paper presented at the
annual meeting of the National Council on Measurement in Education, Los Angeles.

Ebel, R. L. 1982. Proposed solutions to two problems of test construction. Journal of Educational Measurement, 19,267-278

Downing, S. M. 1992. True-false and alternate-choice item formats: A review of research.Educational Measurement: Issues and Practices, I I , 27-30.

Haladyna, T. M., & Downing, S. M. 1993. How many options is enough for a multiple-choice test item. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53, 999-1010.


Haladyna, T. M., Downing, S. M., & Rodriguez, M. C. 2002. A review of multiple-choice item-writing guidelines for classroom assessment. Applied Measurement in Education, 15(3), 309-334.

Haladyna, T. M. 1992b. The effectiveness of several multiple-choice formats. Applied Measurement in Education, 5, 73-88.

HubbardJ. E. 197'8. Measuring medical education: The tests and experience of the National Board of Medical Examiners (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger.

Three Ebooks about Research Methods

 Three Ebooks about Research Methods

                                   Written by Ari Julianto


In performing research operations we need methods. All the methods which are used by the researcher during the course of studying his/her research problem are termed as research methods.Today's posting I would like to share three of my ebooks collection. These ebooks hopefully will help you in understanding the research methods.

 1. A Practical Guide to Research Methods by Catherine Dawson
For the purpose of this book, research is defined as the deliberate study of other people for the purposes of increasing understanding and/or adding to knowledge. In this book, we can find How to Define Your Project, How to Decide Upon a Methodology, How to Choose Your Research Methods, How to Conduct Background Research, How to Choose Your Participants, How to Prepare a Research Proposal, How to Conduct Interviews, How to Conduct Focus Groups, How to Construct Questionnaires, How to Carry Out Participant Observation, How to Analyse Your Data, How to Report Your Findings, and How to be an Ethical Researcher.

Size: 1.89MB
If you are interested in it, you can download it HERE.
If you find the link error, you may contact me personally via email: mr.ari69@gmail.com
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2. Research Design and Methods A Process Approach by Kenneth S. Bordens and Bruce B. Abbott
The goals of this book is to present students with information on the research process in a lively and engaging way and to highlight the numerous decisions they must make when designing and conducting research. This book also stresses how their early decisions in the process affect how data are collected, analyzed, and interpreted later in the research process. Additionally, this book emphasizes on the importance of ethical conduct, both in the treatment of research subjects and in the conduct of research and reporting research results.

Size: 3.31MB
If you are interested in it, you can download it HERE.
If you find the link error, you may contact me personally via email: mr.ari69@gmail.com
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3. Research Methods The Basics by Nicholas Walliman
This book is an accessible, user-friendly introduction to the different aspects of research theory, methods and practice. Structured in two parts, the first covering the nature of knowledge and the reasons for research, and the second the specific methods used to carry out effective research, this book covers: structuring and planning a research project, the ethical issues involved in research, different types of data and how they are measured, collecting and analysing data in order to draw sound conclusions and devising a research proposal and writing up the research. Complete with a glossary of key terms and guides to further reading, this book is an essential text for anyone coming to research for the first time, and is widely relevant across the social sciences and humanities.

Size: 1.46MB
If you are interested in it, you can download it HERE.
If you find the link error, you may contact me personally via email: mr.ari69@gmail.com
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Case Study Method

                              Case Study Method

Written by Victor Jupp in The Sage Dictionary of Social Research Methods.2006. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. pp 20-21.

I. Definition
An approach that uses in-depth investigation of one or more examples of a current social phenomenon, utilizing a variety of sources of data. A ‘case’ can be an individual person, an event, or a social activity, group, organization or institution.

II. Distinctive Features
A major feature of the case study, according to Hakim (2000), is its flexibility. It can range from a simple narrative description to a very rigorous study achieving experimental isolation by the selection of cases on the basis of the presence or absence of key factors rather than the use of random assignment.

A case study can involve
1. a single case (for example, a community study or a sociobiography’ of a member of a deviant subculture)
2. a number (possibly quite large) of cases (for example, in the analysis of the conflict behaviour of different types of work groups).

According to Yin (1984), the main thrust of a case study can be as follows:
1. Exploratory case
Exploratory case studies may provide initial analysis of a phenomenon that will then be systematically explored in other studies,possibly by the use of another approach, such as a sample survey. Or they may follow on from survey work to provide a more detailed account of particular findings.

2. Descriptive study
A descriptive study will attempt to provide a full portrayal of the case or cases being studied.

3. Explanatory case
An explanatory case study will attempt to provide an account of what caused a particular phenomenon observed in the study.

Case studies have a key place in policy research. They are frequently undertaken to provide examples of good practice in the delivery of a specific policy or programme, or they may be undertaken as part of an evaluation project, providing examples of the impact of a policy. In these, and other instances, a key factor affecting the success of the study will be the criteria for selection of the cases to be studied.

For the results to be persuasive they will normally need to be based on cases that provide a report of the operation of the policy in a range of settings. There may, however, be occasion to test the policy in a ‘critical-case’ setting, which presents the most difficult circumstances for it to succeed.

III. Evaluation
The main criticism of the case study method is that in most circumstances the individual cases are not sufficiently representative to permit generalization to other situations. Efforts to overcome this perceived weakness include increasing the number of cases so as to improve their representativeness, and provide for comparative analysis within the case study (Bryman, 1988). But, as Yin (1984) argues, this issue affects other methods as well. How is it possible to generalize from an individual experiment?

In both instances the generalization involves the statement of a theoretical proposition, which in turn will be tested through the use of further case studies and other methods. This, for example, is often the use of case studies in the study of organizations,where organizational theory has been developed on the basis of one or a small number of cases. The depth and rigour of the analysis will be the crucial issue here. Where negative or critical cases are used to test and develop theories, the term analytic induction is sometimes used.

As was noted above, case studies are frequently exploratory in nature and are linked with other methods. In these instances the case study may be viewed less as a vehicle for generalization than as a form of pilot study. Also, in policy research it may be not necessary to have numerous cases in order to identify
the negative impact of a phenomenon, policy or programme. The main factor here will be whether the criteria for the selection of the case or cases will provide a robust test.

Reference
Bryman, A. 1988. Quantity and Quality in Social Research. London: Unwin Hyman.

Hakim, C. 2000. Research Design. London:Routledge.

Yin, Robert K. 1984. Case Study Research:Design and Methods. Beverly Hills, CA:Sage.

Menganalisis Novel untuk Skripsi/Thesis (2)

Menganalisis Novel untuk Skripsi/Thesis (2)

                                              Written by Ari Julianto

II. Creating Outline
Setelah mendapatkan judul (semoga tidak diganti oleh pihak prodi) beserta referensi dan teori-teorinya, tinggalah kita menuju langkah penyusunan dan belum siap untuk menulis. Langkah penyusunan isi skripsi/thesis kita tersebut dalam bentuk outline. Outline ini akan membantu kita untuk menulis Bab per Bab.

Di bawah ini saya menampilkan outline dari dua novel yang saya gunakan sebagai contoh. Untuk elements of the novel seperti characters, plot, theme, dan sebagainya tergantung dari dosen pembimbing kita. Jika dia menilai itu perlu dimasukkan, maka kita masukkan dalam outline kita, jika tidak, maka bisa kita masukkan di Lampiran. Untuk struktur dari setiap Bab, tergantung dari format masing-masing fakultas yang telah ditetapkan.

1. Outline Untuk CAUSES AND THE EFFECTS OF HARRY POTTER’S SADNESS IN J.K. ROWLING’S NOVEL HARRY POTTER AND THE HALF-BLOOD PRINCE
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
1.2 Problem Identification
1.3 Research Objective
1.4 Scope of the Study
1.6 Significance

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW  
2.1 Conceptual Framework
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.2.1 Definition of Sadness
2.2.2 Concept of Sadness
2.2.2.1 Stages of Sadness
2.2.2.2 Signs of Sadness
2.2.3 Theory of Sadness
2.2.3.1 Causes of Sadness
2.2.3.2 Effects of Sadness
2.3 Review of Related Study

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Source of Data
3.3 Data Collection Procedure
3.4 Data Analysis Procedure

CHAPTER IV RESEARCH RESULT
4.1 Analysis
4.1.1 The Causes of Harry Potter’s Sadness
4.1.2 The Effect of Harry Potter’s Sadness on Himself      
4.2 Findings

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION  
5.1 Conclusions  
5.2 Recommendations

2. Outline untuk CAUSES AND INDICATORS OF KINANTHI’S SOCIAL VULNERABILITY IN TASARO GK’S NOVEL KINANTHI – TERLAHIR KEMBALI
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
1.2 Problem Identification
1.3 Research Objective
1.4 Scope of the Study  
1.6 Significance

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW  
2.1 Conceptual Framework
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.2.1 The Meaning of Vulnerability
2.2.2 Vulnerability Categories
2.2.2.1. Cognitive or communicative vulnerability      
2.2.2.2. Institutional vulnerability
2.2.2.3. Deferential vulnerability
2.2.2.4. Medical vulnerability
2.2.2.5. Economic vulnerability
2.2.2.6. Social vulnerability
2.2.2.7. Legal vulnerability
2.2.2.8. Study vulnerability
2.2.4 Social Vulnerability
2.2.5 Causes of Social Vulnerability
2.2.5.1. Poverty
2.2.5.1. Stress  
2.2.5.1. Depression
2.2.5.1. Hazard  
2.2.5.1. Loss
2.2.6. Social Vulnerability Indicators
2.2.6.1. Age
2.2.6.2. Race  
2.2.6.3. Gender  
2.3 Review of Related Study

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Source of Data
3.3 Data Collection Procedure
3.4 Data Analysis Procedure

CHAPTER IV RESEARCH RESULT
4.1 Analysis
4.1.1 The Causes of Kinanthi’s Social Vulnerability      
4.1.1.1 Poverty  
4.1.1.2 Stress
4.1.1.3 Depression
4.1.1.4 Hazard  
4.1.1.5 Loss
4.1.2 The Indicators of Kinanthi’s Social Vulnerability      
4.1.2.1 Age
4.1.2.2 Race
4.1.2.3 Gender  
4.2 Findings  

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION  
5.1 Conclusions
5.2 Recommendations

III. Getting Started
Setelah outline kita susun, langkah selanjutnya adalah penulisan. Langkah penulisan dimulai dari BAB I PENDAHULUAN (CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION). Untuk cara menulis PENDAHULUAN (INTRODUCTION ) lihat postinghan saya Cara Menulis Latar Belakang (Background of the Study).

1. Problem Identification
a. Untuk HARRY POTTER AND THE HALF-BLOOD PRINCE
1. The causes of Harry Potter’s Sadness in J.K. Rowling’s novel Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince,
2. The effects of Harry Potter’s sadness on himself in J.K. Rowling’s novel Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince.

b Untuk  KINANTHI – TERLAHIR KEMBALI
1. The causes of Kinanthi’s social vulnerability in Tasaro GK’s Kinanthi - Terlahir Kembali novel,,
2. The indicators of Kinanthi’s social vulnerability in Tasaro GK’s Kinanthi - Terlahir Kembali novel,

2. Research Objective
a. Untuk HARRY POTTER AND THE HALF-BLOOD PRINCE
1. to reveal the causes of Harry Potter’s Sadness in J.K. Rowling’s novel Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince,
2. to reveal the effects of Harry Potter’s sadness on himself  in J.K. Rowling’s novel Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince.

b. Untuk  KINANTHI – TERLAHIR KEMBALI
1. to reveal the causes of Kinanthi’s social vulnerability in Tasaro GK’s Kinanthi - Terlahir Kembali novel,
2. to reveal the indicators of Kinanthi’s social vulnerability in Tasaro GK’s Kinanthi - Terlahir Kembali novel.

3. Scope of the Study    
a. Untuk HARRY POTTER AND THE HALF-BLOOD PRINCE
In Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince we see that the world of wizard and the Muggle world exist together and, occasionally, interact with one another. We see as tension builds between the two worlds and as Voldemort's war against Muggle-born wizards and witches manifests itself in violent ways in the Muggle world. These two worlds relate to the feeling of sadness that Harry experienced. There are many aspects in the novel that can be analyzed and discussed comprehensibly, but the discussion must be restricted. Thus, this study focuses only on the causes of Harry Potter’s sadness and the effects of his sadness on himself in J.K. Rowling’s novel Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince. The other aspects are expected to be analyzed by other researchers.

b. Untuk  KINANTHI – TERLAHIR KEMBALI
In Kinanthi - Terlahir Kembali novel, we see that from a young girl who experiences social vulnerability grows up and becomes a successful woman.   There are many aspects in the novel that can be analyzed and discussed comprehensibly, but the discussion must be restricted. Thus, this study focuses only on the causes and the indicators of Kinanthi’s social vulnerability in Tasaro GK’s Kinanthi - Terlahir Kembali novel. The other aspects are expected to be analyzed by other researchers.

4. Data Collection Procedure
a. Untuk HARRY POTTER AND THE HALF-BLOOD PRINCE
The data sources in this study are Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince by J. K Rowlings novel and Indonesia version Harry Potter dan Pangeran Berdarah Campuran written by J.K. Rowling. In such of this case, the writer uses documentary technique. This method is an attempt to trace the sources of information which are relevant to the study. The steps of collecting data are as follows: firstly, the writer reads the novel several times thoroughly. And then he takes the most important point to be the subject matter which in this case Harry Potter’ sadness feelings. In this step the writer also selects the data which are relation with the purpose of the study. Then, he makes the novel as the primary source of data. Secondly, the writer also consults to his advisory lecturers to ask for some guidance in writing this thesis. Finally, he collects all the data that support his subject matter. The writer takes the sources of the references of the several books, dictionaries and Internet which have relationship to the subject matter. He formulated the idea regularly into so called thesis. In this step, he also arranges the data systematically in accordance with the problem of the study.

b. Untuk  KINANTHI – TERLAHIR KEMBALI
The data sources in this study are Kinanthi - Terlahir Kembali by Tasaro GK novel. In such of this case, the writer uses documentary technique. This method is an attempt to trace the sources of information which are relevant to the study. The steps of collecting data are as follows: firstly, the writer reads the novel several times thoroughly. And then he takes the most important point to be the subject matter which in this case Kinanthi’s social vulnerability. In this step the writer also selects the data which are relation with the purpose of the study. Then, she makes the novel as the primary source of data. Secondly, the writer also consults to his advisory lecturers to ask for some guidance in writing this thesis. Finally, she collects all the data that support his subject matter. The writer takes the sources of the references of the several books, dictionaries and Internet which have relationship to the subject matter. She formulated the idea regularly into so called thesis. In this step, he also arranges the data systematically in accordance with the problem of the study.

5. Data Analysis Procedure
a. Untuk HARRY POTTER AND THE HALF-BLOOD PRINCE dan Untuk  KINANTHI – TERLAHIR KEMBALI adalah sama yakni
After collecting the data, there are some steps in doing data analysis, they are: finding the data which are related with this study which in this case Harry Potter’s sadness including the causes and the effects, separating the data based on the objectives of the study, exploring the collected data and other related data from the relevant references, analyzing the data and the last is drawing the conclusion of the research and rechecking whether the conclusion are appropriate.

Langkah selanjutnya adalah melakukan penelitian. Ada beberapa hal yang perlu diperhatikan ketika menganalisa isi novel tersebut, antara lain:
1. Ketika kita membaca ulang novel tersebut, tandailah hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan variable atau topik kita baik itu dalam bentuk kalimat langsung (dalam dialog) maupun kalimat tidak langsung yang diapaparkan si penulis,

2. Jika kita memiliki novel tersebut dalam bentuk atau berformat pdf, lakukanlah pencarian (search) dengan menggunakan kata-kata yang berkaitan dengan variable atau topik skripsi/thesis kita sebab hal itu akan mempermudah kita menemukan unsur kata yang kita inginkan,

3. Buatlah catatan kecil untuk mengklasifikasikan temuan kita sesuai dengan variable atau topik dari teori yang kita gunakan. Bisa kemungkinan salah satu penyebab (the causes) dari teori yang diungkapkan para ahli tersebut tidak terdapat pada novel kita.

4. Ketika menyelesaikan KESIMPULAN (CONCLUSIONS), usahakan isi dari KESIMPULAN kita merupakan cerminan dari permasalahan kita. Jika permasalahan kita adalah penyebab dan dampak, maka pada KESIMPULAN diuraikan penyebab dan dampak juga bukan hal-hal yang lain.

Demikianlah pembahasan kita kali ini. Topik ini saya angkat oleh karena adanya permintaan dari sejumlah pembaca blog ini. Terima kasih.

Menganalisis Novel untuk Skripsi/Thesis (1)

Menganalisis Novel untuk Skripsi/Thesis (1)

Written by Ari Julianto


Bidang analisa skripsi/thesis pada Fakultas Sastra Inggris maupun Sastra Indonesia pada umumnya mencakup Kesusasteraan (Literature) dan Linguistik (Linguistic), namun beberapa universitas lain kadangkala menambahkan bidang analisa lainnya.

Menganalisa untuk kajian Literature dan Linguistic kedua-duanya memiliki kemudahan dan kesulitan tersendiri. Keduanya sama-sama menganalisa hasil karya sastra, namun variable yang dianalisis berbeda. Pada umumnya, untuk literature kebanyakan yang dianalisis adalah sisi psychology, sociology, dan masih banyak sisi kajian lainnya termasuk elements of the novel. Sedangkan untuk linguistic bisa dianalisis sisi semantic, morphology, syntax, pragmatic dan sebagainya.

Pada tulisan kali ini, saya ingin memberi contoh cara menganalisis sebuah novel untuk penulisan skripsi/thesis dari sisi psychology dan sociology. Saya mengambil contoh dua novel, yakni
- Harry Potter and the Half – Blood Prince (Berbahasa Inggris)
- Kinanthi– Terlahir Kembali (Berbahasa Indonesia)

I. Pre-writing
Sebelum memulai penulisan proposal skripsi, ada beberapa langkah yang harus dipertimbangakan bagi peneliti/mahasiswa sastra, antara lain:

1. Pemilihan Sumber Data Primer
sumber data primer dalam kajian ini adalah novel. Pemilihan novel pada umumnya melalui proses sebagai berikut:
a. berbahasa Indonesia dan Inggris
Novel berbahasa Indonesia akan sangat membantu dalam penulisan sebuah skripsi/thesis. Jika terpaksa harus memilih versi Inggris, kita tetap berusaha mendapatkan versi Indonesianya untuk mendukung pemahaman kita terhadap isi novel tersebut,

b. populer dan sedang menjadi pembahasan umum
Proses pemerolehan sumber data ini sangat membantu disebabkan novel ini sangat populer dan menjadi topik hangat. Sudah tentu banyak sumber-sumber data yang bisa kita peroleh baik itu ulasan (review) ataupun analisa kritis (critical analysis).

c. ditulis oleh penulis terkenal
Proses pemerolehan sumber data ini akan membantu penulisan skripsi/thesis disebabkan penulis yang novelnya akan kita ulas merupakan penulis terkenal dimana banyak orang sudah menganalisis karya-karyanya sebelum novel yang akan kita kaji itu diterbitkan.

d. pernah membaca dan memahami isinya
Pernah membaca sebuah novel sebelumnya dan memahami isi dari novel tersebut juga akan sangat membantu dalam penulisan skripsi/thesis kita.

e. mendapat rekomendasi dari orang lain
Proses pemerolehan novel seperti ini tidak banyak membantu. Disebabkan kita harus bekerja keras selain mencari novel tersebut di berbagai tempat, kita harus membacanya dan memahami isinya. 

2. Pemilihan Topik
Setelah mendapatkan novel yang menjadi sumber data primer kita, kemudian dicarilah topik yang akan dianalisis dalam novel tersebut. Banyak topik yang bisa diangkat dari sebuah novel. Jika kita tidak membacanya, sulit sekali menemukan topik apa yang akan kita angkat. Jika novel tersebut berbahasa Inggris, bacalah dan pahamilah dengan bantuan versi Indonesianya. Jika tidak ditemukan versi Indonesianya, carilah ulasan-ulasan mengenai novel tersebut baik dalam bahasa Indonesia maupun bahasa Inggris. Untuk pembahasan ini saya memilih
- The causes and the effect of sadness (untuk novel Harry Potter and the Half – Blood Prince), dan
- The causes and the indicators of Kinanthi's social vulnerability (untuk novel Kinanthi– Terlahir Kembali)

Mengapa saya memilih the causes (penyebab) pada kedua novel tersebut? Alasannya adalah karena
a. semua novel memiliki alur (plot), klimaks dari sebuah konflik dan sudah tentu ada penyebabnya,
b. teori-teori penyebab suatu keadaan dari segi psychology dan sociology lebih mudah ditemukan ketimbang teori yang jarang dikaji para ilmuwan.

Dalam tahap ini, kita bisa menyusun permasalahan skripsi/thesis yang akan kita ajukan dalam bentuk proposal.

3. Pencarian Sumber Data Sekunder
Sumber data sekunder adalah sumber data yang mendukung ulasan BAB II dalam hal ini Review of Literature. Sumber data sekunder bisa terbagi menjadi dua, yakni

a. sumber data sekunder umum
yakni sumber data literatur yang berkaitan dengan kesusasteraan (literature). Untuk diingat, referensi bisa berbentuk buku, jurnal, article maupun wawancara langsung pada pakar kesusasteraan. Dalam hal ini saya umumnya menggunakan referensi seperti:

Kothari, C.R. 2004. Research Methodology, Methods & Techniques. Mumbai: New Age International Publishers.
(untuk referensi dasar sebuah penelitian)

- Moody, H. 1987. The Study of Literature. London: George Allen and Unwin.
- Bennett, Andrew and Nicholas Royle. 2004. An Introduction to Literature, Criticism and Theory. Pearson Education Limited.
- Ade, Olaofe Isaac and Oyeniyi Okunoye. An Introduction to Literature and Literary Criticism. Abuja: National Open University of Nigeria.
- Williams, Jeffrey. 2004. Theory and the Novel. London: Cambridge University Press.
(Untuk referensi pemahaman Sastra dan novel).

- Childs, Peter and Roger Fowler. 2006. The Routledge Dictionary of Literary Terms. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.
(Untuk referensi definisi berkaitan dengan istilah sastra)

- Editorial Team. 1992. The American Heritage Dictionary of The English Language. Third Edition. Boston: Houghton Miffin.
(Untuk referensi definisi berkaitan dengan istilah umum)

b. sumber data sekunder khusus
yakni sumber data literatur yang berkaitan dengan variable atau topik yang akan dikaji. Untuk diingat, referensi bisa berbentuk buku, jurnal, article maupun wawancara langsung pada si penulis novel tersebut. Dalam hal ini, saya membahas mengenai Sadness dan  Social Vulnerability yang referensinya antara lain:

- Goodrum, Sarah, 2008.  The Management of Sadness in Everyday Life. Pschology Journal.
- Evans, Garret, 2012. Signs and Symptoms of Depression, Booklet. Florida. University of Florida.
- Horwitz, Allan V. and Jerome C. Wakefield. 2007. The Loss of Sadness How Psychiatry Transformed Normal Sorrow Into Depressive Disorder, London: Oxford University Press, Inc.
(untuk novel Harry Potter and the Half – Blood Prince)
dan sejumlah referensi lainnya.

- Adger, W. Neil. 1998. Indicators Of Social And Economic Vulnerability To Climate Change In Vietnam. Working Paper. Centre for Social and Economic Research on the Global Environment University of East Anglia and University College London.
- Adger, N. and Kelly, M. 1999. Social Vulnerability to Climate Change And The Architecture of Entitlement. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 4, 253–266.
- Ingram, R. E. et al.1998. Cognitive Vulnerability to Depression. New York: Guilford Press.
(Untuk novel Kinanthi - Terlahir Kembali)
dan sejumlah referensi lainnya.

4. Pencarian Teori-Teori Terkait
Setelah mendapatkan sumber data sekunder, langkah selanjutnya adalah menemukan teori-teori yang berkaitan dengan variable atau topik yang akan kita kaji. Jika masing-masing pakar atau penulis memiliki tanggapan yang berbeda, maka kita bisa menyimpulkan teori mereka menjadi satu. Sebab pada umumnya, sejumlah teori memiliki persamaan. Dalam contoh pembahasan ini, saya menggunakan teori-teori seperti:

- Horwitz and Wakefield in Loss of Sadness.2007.
- Johnston in Grief - Causes, Effects and Ways to Deal With It. 2012
(untuk Harry Potter and the Half – Blood Prince)
dan sejumlah teori terkait lainnya.

- Ingram and Price in Vulnerability to Psychopathology Risk across the Lifespan. 2010.
- Pasteur in From Vulnerability to Resilience. 2011.
- Rygel in A Method For Constructing A Social Vulnerability Index. 2006.
(Untuk novel Kinanthi - Terlahir Kembali)
dan sejumlah teori terkait lainnya.

5. Penulisan Judul Skripsi/Thesis
Setelah mendapatkan topik dari novel yang kita teliti berikut dengan sejumlah referensi dan teorinya, maka saatnya kita menentukan judul skripsi/thesis kita. Dalam pembahasan ini saya menggunakan judul

CAUSES AND THE EFFECTS OF HARRY POTTER’S SADNESS IN J.K. ROWLING’S NOVEL HARRY POTTER AND THE HALF-BLOOD PRINCE

CAUSES AND INDICATORS OF KINANTHI’S SOCIAL VULNERABILITY IN TASARO GK’S NOVEL KINANTHI – TERLAHIR KEMBALI

to be continued

More about Action Research

More about Action Research

Written by Eileen Ferrance in Action Research. 2000. Northeast and Islands Regional Educational Laboratory At Brown University. pp 9-12.





I. Steps in Action Research
Within all the definitions of action research, there are four basic themes: empowerment of participants, collaboration through participation, acquisition of knowledge, and social change. In conducting action research, we structure routines for continuous confrontation with data on the health of a school community. These routines are loosely guided by movement through five phases of inquiry:

1. Identification of problem area
Teachers often have several questions they wish to investigate; however, it is important to limit the question to one that is meaningful and doable in the confines of their daily work. Careful planning at this first stage will limit false starts and frustrations. There are several criteria to consider before investing the time and effort in “researching” a problem. The question should An important guideline in choosing a question is to ask if it is something over which the teacher has influence. Is it something of interest and worth the time and effort that will be spent? Sometimes there is a discrete problem that is readily identifiable. Or, the problem to be studied may come from a feeling of discomfort or tension in the classroom. For example, a teacher may be using the latest fashionable teaching strategy, yet not really knowing or understanding what or how kids are learning.

2. Collection and organization of data
The collection of data is an important step in deciding what action needs to be taken. Multiple sources of data are used to better understand the scope of happenings in the classroom or school. There are many vehicles for collection of data:

journals    individual files    logs of meetings    videotapes    case studies
surveys records – tests, report cards, attendance    self-assessment
samples of student work, projects, performances interviews
portfolios    diaries    field notes    audio tapes    photos memos
questionnaires    focus groups    anecdotal records    checklists

Select the data that are most appropriate for the issue being researched. Are the data easy to collect? Are there sources readily available for use? How structured and systematic will the collection be? Use at least three sources (triangulation) of data for the basis of actions. Organize the data in a way that makes it useful to identify trends and themes. Data can be arranged by gender, classroom, grade level, school, etc.

3. Interpretation of data
Analyze and identify major themes. Depending upon the question, teachers may wish to use classroom data, individual data, or subgroup data. Some of the data are quantifiable and can be analyzed without the use of statistics or technical assistance. Other data, such as opinions, attitudes, or checklists, may be summarized in table form. Data that are not quantifiable can be reviewed holistically and important elements or themes can be noted.

4. Action based on data
Using the information from the data collection and review of current literature, design a plan of action that will allow you to make a change and to study that change. It is important that only one variable be altered. As with any experiment, if several changes are made at once, it will be difficult to determine which action is responsible for the outcome. While the new technique is being implemented, continue to document and collect data on performance.

5. Reflection
Assess the effects of the intervention to determine if improvement has occurred. If there is improvement, do the data clearly provide the supporting evidence? If no, what changes can be made to the actions to elicit better results?

II. Frequently Asked Questions
Q. What is action research?
A. Action research is deliberate, solution-oriented investigation that is group or personally owned and conducted. It is characterized by spiraling cycles of problem identification, systematic data collection,reflection, analysis, data-driven action taken, and,finally, problem redefinition. The linking of the terms “action” and “research” highlights the essential features of this method: trying out ideas in.

Q. What is the purpose of action research?
A. Action research is used for various purposes: schoolbased
curriculum development, professional development, systems planning, school restructuring, and as an evaluative tool.

Q. How can teachers become researchers?
A. A teacher can decide to tackle a problem alone or join with others to learn more how children learn. They can meet after school or during common time to discuss the nature of a problem and decide on a strategy based on an analysis of data.

Q. How do I learn more about action research?
A. Many local colleges and university offer coursework on action research. Some private organizations offer workshops on the basic principles of action research and have networks that are open to interested educators. Additionally, contact the regional educational laboratory in your area.

Q. How can I use action research in my classroom?
A. You can use it to chart the effects of implementation of a curriculum or strategy, to study student learning and responses, or to profile individual students.

Q. How does action research benefit students in the classroom?
A. Action research can improve the teaching and learning process by reinforcing, modifying, or changing perceptions based on informal data and nonsystematic observations.

Q. How does action research benefit teachers?
A. Teachers learn what it is that they are able to influence
and they make changes that produce results that show change. The process provides the opportunity to work with others and to learn from the sharing of ideas.

Q. Why should schools engage in action research?
A. Reasons for performing action research fall into three categories: to promote personal and professional growth, to improve practice to enhance student learning, and to advance the teaching profession.

Q. What gains can be made from action research that affect students?
A. Change is based on data; the student is the subject and object of inquiry.

Q. Does action research take away from other instructional time?
A. Time must be made to organize, study, collect data, analyze data, and for dissemination.

Q. Who will manage action research projects?
A. Projects can be managed by the individual teacher or a team leader. With school-wide or district-wide projects, it is not unusual for an outside facilitator to manage the project.

Hakikat Keterampilan Berbicara (Speaking)

     Hakikat Keterampilan Berbicara (Speaking)


Written by Ari Julianto


Keterampilan (skill) merupakan kecakapan,kecekatan atau kemampuan untuk melakukan sesuatu dengan baik dan cermat. Keterampilan berbicara termasuk salah satu dari empat keterampilan berbahasa yang harus dikuasai seorang  yang tengah mempelajari keterampilan berbahasa selain menulis (writing), membaca (reading) dan mendengarkan (listening).


I. Definisi
Menurut Tarigan (1981:15), berbicara merupakan suatu bentuk perilaku manusia yang memanfaatkan faktor-faktor fisik, psikologis, neurologis, semantis dan linguistik yang sangat intensif. Lebih lanjut Tarigan (1986: 3) mengemukakan bahwa berbicara adalah kemampuan seseorang dalam mengucapkan bunyi-bunyi artikulasi atau kata-kata yang bertujuan untuk mengekspresikan, menyatakan serta menyampaikan pikiran,gagasan dan perasaan orang tersebut.

Sementara Brown dan Yule dalam Nunan (1989: 26) berpendapat bahwa berbicara  adalah menggunakan bahasa lisan yang terdiri dari ucapan yang pendek, tidak utuh atau terpisah-pisah dalam lingkup pengucapan. Pengucapan tersebut sangat erat berhubungan dengan hubungan timbal balik yang dilakukan antara pembicara satu dengan pendengar.

Sedangkan menurut Djago Tarigan (1995: 149) berbicara adalah keterampilan menyampaikan pesan melalui bahasa lisan. Kaitan antara pesan dan bahasa lisan sebagai media penyampaian sangat berat. Pesan yang diterima oleh pendengar tidaklah dalam wujud asli, tetapi dalam bentuk lain yakni bunyi bahasa. Pendengar kemudian mencoba mengalihkan pesan dalam bentuk bunyi bahasa itu menjadi bentuk semula.

II. Percakapan
Percakapan (conversation) merupakan salah satu bentuk realisasi dari keterampilan berbicara.  Definisi dari percakapan ini banyak variasinya. Disini hanya menampilkan tiga definisi dari kamus berbeda.

- Jika Anda mengadakan percakapan dengan seseorang, Anda berbicara dengannya, dan biasanya dalam situasi yang tidak resmi (Collins’ COBUILD English Dictionary).
-Pembicaraan yang tidak resmi dimana orang-orang saling bertukar berita, perasaan dan pemikiran (Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English).
- Suatu pembicaraan yang tidak resmi melibatkan sekelompok kecil orang atau hanya dua orang; aktivitas pembicaraannya pun dengan cara yang sama. (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary)
Menurut Thornbury dan Slade (2006: 25), percakapan umumnya dalam bentuk tidak resmi, suatu pembicaraan yang interaktif antara dua atau lebih orang yang terjadi dalam waktu yang nyata dan spontan, memiliki fungsi interpersonmal yang luas dan mereka yang terlibat berbagi hak yang simetris.

Lebih lanjut Thornbury dan Slade (2006: 8) menyebutkan ciri-ciri percakapan dan implikasinya, antara lain :
1.Diucapkan,
2.Spontan dalam waktu yang nyata,
3.Terjadi konteks yang berbagi,
4. interaktif, konstruktif, dan resiprokal,
5. Berfungsi secara interpersonal,
6. Dalam bentuk informal, dan
7. Mengungkapkan keinginan, perasaan, sikap dan penilaian.

III. Tujuan Keterampilan Berbicara
Tujuan umum berbicara menurut Djago Tarigan (1995:149) terdapat lima golongan yakni
1. Menghibur Berbicara
Si pembicara menarik perhatian pendengar dengan berbagai cara, seperti humor, spontanitas, menggairahkan, kisah-kisah jenaka, petualangan, dan sebagainya untuk menimbulkan suasana gembira pada pendengarnya.

2. Menginformasikan
Melaporkan dan dilaksanakan bila seseorang ingin:
a. menjelaskan suatu proses;
b. menguraikan, menafsirkan, atau menginterpretasikan sesuatu hal;
c. memberi, menyebarkan, atau menanamkan pengetahuan;
d. menjelaskan kaitan.

3. Menstimulasi Berbicara
Berbicara itu harus pintar merayu, mempengaruhi, atau meyakinkan pendengarnya. Ini dapat tercapai jika pembicara benar-benar mengetahui :
a. kemauan,
b. minat,
c. inspirasi,
d. kebutuhan, dan
e. cita-cita pendengarnya.

4. Menggerakkan Dalam berbicara
Untuk menggerakkan diperlukan pembicara yang berwibawa, panutan atau tokoh idola masyarakat. Melalui kepintarannya dalam berbicara, kecakapan memanfaatkan situasi, ditambah penguasaannya terhadap ilmu jiwa massa, pembicara dapat menggerakkan pendengarnya.

Sedangkan, menurut Tarigan (1981:16), berbicara mempunyai tiga maksud umum, yaitu:
1. memberitahukan, melaporkan (to inform);
2. menjamu, menghibur (to entertain); dan
3. membujuk, mengajak, mendesak, meyakinkan (to persuade).

IV. Ragam Bentuk Berbicara
Secara garis besar bentuk berbicara dibagi dalam beberapa bentuk, yaitu
1. Berbicara di muka umum
Menurut Tarigan (1981: 22-23) beberapa kegiatan berbicara ke dalam kategori tersebut.
a. Berbicara dalam situasi yang bersifat memberitahukan atau melaporkan, bersifat informatif (informative speaking).
b. Berbicara dalam situasi yang bersifat membujuk, mengajak, atau meyakinkan (persuasive speaking).
c. Berbicara dalam situasi yang bersifat merundingkan dengan tenang dan hati-hati (deliberate speaking).

2. Berbicara dalam konferensi
a. Kelompok resmi (formal),
b. Kelompok tidak resmi (informal)
3. Prosedur Parlementer
4. Berdebat
a. Debat parlementer atau majelis,
b. Debat pemeriksaan ulangan,
c. Debat formal, konvensional atau debat pendidikan

Aktifitas dalam keterampilan berbicara oleh Richards dan Renandya (2002: 209-210), dibagi dalam empat aktivitas:
1. Lisan (aural: oral activities),
2. Gambar (visual: oral activities),
3. Bantuan material (material-aided: oral activities), dan
4. Kesadaran budaya (culture awareness: oral activities).

V. Fungsi Berbicara
Menurut Richards (2008: 21) fungsi berbicara antara lain:
1. Sebagai interaksi (talk as interaction),
Unsur pokoknya antara lain:
a. berfungsi sosial,
b. Merefleksikan hubungan,
c. Merefleksikan identitas pembicara,
d. Bisa jadi formal atau casual,
e. menggunakan syarat percakapan,
f. Merefleksikan tingkat kesopanan,
g. Menggunakan kata-kata generik,
h. Menggunakan percakapan terdaftar/resmi,
i. Terkonstruksi bersama.

2. Sebagai transaksi (talk as transaction)
Unsur pokoknya antara lain:
a. Fokus pada informasi,
b. Berfokus pada psan dan bukan pada partisipan,
c. Menggunakan strategi komunikasi agar bisa dipahami,
d. Ada pertanyan, pengulanghan dan pemahaman,
e. Ada negosiasi,
f.  Akurasi linguistik tidak begitu penting.

3. sebagai kinerja/publik (talk as performance)
Unsur pokoknya antara lain:
a. fokus pada pesan dan audiens,
b. penyusunan dan kata berurut,
c. memenitngkan akurasi dan bentuk,
d. Cen derung bahas tulisan,
e. Sering dalam bentuk monologik.

VI. Faktor-faktor yang Mempengaruhi Efektivitas Berbicara
Menurut Arsjad dan Mukti (1993: 17-20) mengemukakan bahwa untuk menjadi pembicara yang baik, seorang pembicara harus menguasai masalah yang sedang dibicarakan, dan harus berbicara dengan jelas dan tepat. Beberapa faktor yang harus diperhatikan oleh pembicara untuk keefektifan berbicara adalah
1. Faktor kebahasaan
Faktor kebahasaan yang menunjang keefektifan berbicara, meliputi:
a. Ketepatan ucapan, pengucapan buyi-bunyian harus tepat, begitu juga dengan penempatan tekanan, durasi, dan nada yang sesuai.
b. Pemilihan kata atau diksi, harus jelas, tepat dan bervariasi sehingga dapat memancing kepahaman dari pendengar.
c. Ketepatan sasaran pembicara, pemakaian kalimat atau keefektivan kalimat memudahkan pendengar untuk menangkap isi pembicaraan.
Penilaian dari faktor kebahasaan meliputi:
a. Ucapan,
b. tata bahasa,
c. kosa kata,

2. Faktor non kebahasaan,
a. Sikap yang tidak kaku
b. Kesediaan menghargai pendapat,
c. Pandangan ke pendengar,
d. Gerak-gerik atau mimik tepat,
e. Kenyaringan suara,
f. Kelancaran berbicara,
g. Penguasaan topik.
Penilaian dari faktor non kebahasaan meliputi:
a. ketenangan,
b. volume suara,
c. Kelancaran,
d. pemahaman.

Referensi
Arsjad, Maidar G dan Mukti U.S. 1988.  Pembinaan Kemampuan Berbicara Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: Erlangga.

Nunan, David. 1989. Designing Task for the Communicative Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

______. (2003). Practical English Language Teaching. New York: Mc.Graw-Hill Companies.

Richards-Amato, P. 2003. Making it Happen: From Interactive to Participatory Language Teaching. New York: Pearson Education, Inc.

Richards, Jack C. 2008. Teaching Listening  and Speaking From Theory to Practice. London: Cambridge University Press

Richards, J. C. dan Renandya, W. A. 2002. Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practices. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Tarigan, Henry Guntur. 1981. Berbicara Sebagai Suatu Keterampilan Berbahasa.Bandung: Angkasa.

Tarigan, Djago. 1995. Materi Pokok Pendidikan Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: Depdikbud.

Thornbury, Scott dan Diana Slade. 2006. Conversation: From Description to Pedagogy. Cambridge University Press.

Semoga postingan kali ini bermanfaat bagi kita semua. Amien.